THE  USE  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 


Bj    SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 


VIRGIL  E.  DICKSON 
Director  Bureau  of  Research  and  Guidance 


MONOGRAPH  NUMBER  FOUR 
JUNE,  1922 


&f" 


This  book  is  DUE  on  the  last  date  stamped  beloi 

AUG  8     1929 
JUL  19  19b 

1      1929 

AUG  6      193J 
NOV      6  1933 

'MS 

i  MAR  2  9  1 


cop. 5     Bicks0n.-Tlie 
~~^  ^-p  menial   tests 


Southern  Branch 
of  the 

University  of  California 

Los  Angeles 

Form  L  I 


•H, 

AJNIVERS!.  CALIFORNIA, 

LIBRARY, 

'LuS  ANGELES,  CALIF. 

THE  USE  OF  MENTAL  TESTS 


IN 


SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 


VIRGIL  E.  DICKSON 
Director  Bureau  of  Research  and  Guidance 


; 


MONOGRAPH  NUMBER  FOUR 
JUNE,  1922 


Issued  by 

The  Board  of  Education 

Berkeey,  California 


56681 


BERKELEY  PUBLIC  SCHOOLS  MONOGRAPHS 


From  time  to  time  as  a  means  of  recording  significant  progress  and  of 
promoting  the  progressive  evolution  of  the  various  phases  of  public  education 
in  Berkeley,  a  monograph  will  be  issued  treating  some  phase  of  public  school 
work.  These  monographs  are  designed  to  take  the  place  of  conventional 
annual  reports  which  it  is  the  custom  of  Boards  of  Education  to  issue. 

1.  Democratizing  Teaching  and  Administration. 

(In  preparation.) 

2.  Socializing  Class  Room  Procedures. 

(In  preparation.) 

3.  The  Intermediate  Schools  of  Berkeley. 

(In  preparation.) 

4.  The  Use  of  Mental  Tests  in  School  Administration — A  Report  of  the 

Bureau  of  Research  and  Guidance. 
(Issued  June,  1922.) 

5.  The    Development    of    Continuation    Education    Opportunities    in 
Berkeley. 

(Issued  June,  1920.) 


Lf3 
G  I 

3)' 


CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

INTRODUCTION 5 

CHAPTER  I. 

SCOPE  AND  NATURE  OF  THE  WORK  OF  THE  BUREAU  OF 

RESEARCH  AND  GUIDANCE 7 

CHAPTER  II. 
MENTAL  TESTING  AND  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION    .       .       .11 

Distribution  of  Chronological  and  Mental  Ages  .       .       .       .12 
Reliability  of  Tests  for  Prognosis 20 

a.  Prognosis  on  the  Basis  of  Intelligence  Quotient. 

b.  Prognosis  on  the  Basis  of  Mental  Age. 

Grade  Location,  as  Related  to  Mental  Age  and  Chronologi- 
cal Age 28 

Reliability  of  Individual  Test  as  Shown  by  Retests  of  the 

Same  Child  (288  cases) 30 

Reliability  of  Group  Mental  Tests 34 

School  Organization  and  Classification  with  Reference  to 

Individual  Differences 38 

CHAPTER  III. 
SUMMARY  AND  CONCLUSIONS 42 


INTRODUCTION 


Within  the  last  two  or  three  decades  the  public  school  system  has  grad- 
ually grown  more  and  more  complex.  Not  only  have  studies  and  curricula 
increased  in  number,  but  school  organization  has  become  highly  differentiated 
and  the  means  of  ministering  to  the  needs  of  individual  children  have  been 
greatly  multiplied.  Indeed,  a  modern  school  system  is  as  marvelous  an 
expression  of  complexity  in  education  as  the  modern  city  is  an  expression  of 
complexity  of  social  life. 

An  accompaniment  of  greater  complexity  has  been  increased  school  costs. 
The  greater  costs  are  in  part  a  result  of  the  more  varied  features  combined 
in  the  modern  complex  system.  Increased  costs  are  partly  due,  of  course,  to 
the  gradually  changing  economic  situation  and  to  the  higher  standards  of 
living  which  have  been  established. 

The  need  for  careful  study  of  any  enterprise  or  institution  increases  as 
complexity  becomes  greater  and  as  costs  multiply.  Public  schools  have 
shown  themselves  responsive  to  this  need.  Within  the  last  two  decades  as 
a  result  of  the  initial  efforts  of  Rice,  Thorndike,  Strayer,  and  others,  scientific 
procedures  applicable  to  analyzing  and  measuring  the  efficiency  of  school 
procedures  and  the  costs  of  the  same  have  been  developed.  By  this  time 
rather  satisfactory  standards  have  been  established  for  judging  the  efficiency 
of  a  school  plant,  the  organization  of  a  school  system,  the  ability  of  children 
in  the  various  subjects  from  grade  to  grade,  the  costs  which  are  reasonable 
for  various  types  of  school  work,  and  so  on.  Just  as  a  well  established 
business  enterprise  no  longer  relies  upon  rule  of  thumb  methods  nor  trial 
and  error  processes,  so  no  school  system  which  is  economically  and  efficiently 
operated  may  rely  upon  such  methods. 

In  keeping  with  the  foregoing  considerations,  the  Board  of  Education  of 
the  ^erkely  Public  Schools  established  a  Bureau  of  Research  and  Guidance 
at  the  opening  of  the  school  year  1919.  This  bureau  is  responsible  for  con- 
ducting a  continuous  survey  of  the  most  pressing  educational  and  financial 
problems  connected  with  the  operation  of  the  system. 

This  monograph  is  the  first  printed  report  of  the  results  of  the  work  of 
this  bureau.  No  effort  has  been  made  to  compile  a  complete  report  of  all  of 
the  efforts  and  activities  of  the  Bureau  of  Research  and  Guidance.  Sufficient 
results  have  been  achieved,  however,  and  sufficient  services  been  rendered 
to  call  forth  the  brief  report  made  herein.  The  first  chapter  concerns  itself 
with  a  brief  summary  of  some  of  the  major  types  of  work  in  the  Berkeley 
Public  Schools  carried  on  by  the  bureau.  The  later  chapters  set  forth  in  a 
scientific  impersonal  way  the  relation  of  measurement  to  efficiency  in  the 
classification  and  teaching  of  children.  Both  of  these  are  central  problems 
of  large  concern  in  the  administration  of  schools.  Hundreds  of  children  in 
the  schools  of  Berkeley  have  profited  during  the  last  three  years  in  both 
happiness  and  growth  as  a  result  of  the  more  scientific  handling  of  them 
through  the  work  of  this  bureau. 

Our  experience  to  date  strongly  justifies  the  faith  which  led  to  the  estab- 


lishment  of  the  Bureau  of  Research  and  Guidance.  Our  efficiency  in  both 
organization  and  teaching  has  been  much  improved  through  its  efforts.  Prob- 
lems of  principals  and  teachers  as  well  as  those  of  the  general  administration 
have  had  scientific  constructive  attention.  Not  only  so,  but  many  of  the 
teaching  staff  have  developed  good  ability  to  employ  scientific  technique  in 
their  work  and  to  apply  the  results  of  scientific  study  to  their  daily  problems. 
Sixty-five  teachers  now  carry  certificates  evidencing  their  ability  to  give 
mental  tests  as  a  result  of  the  training  provided  through  the  Bureau  of 
Research  and  Guidance.  It  is  believed  this  monograph  will  render  large 
service  to  the  teaching  staff  through  making  available  in  convenient  form 
some  of  the  procedures  and  results  therefrom  which  have  been  so  effective 
in  improving  our  efforts  to  serve  the  children  of  Berkeley. 

H.  B.  Wilson, 
Superintendent  of  Schools. 


—  6  — 


CHAPTER   I. 


GENERAL  SCOPE  AND  NATURE  OF  THE  WORK  OF  THE  BUREAU 
OF  RESEARCH  AND  GUIDANCE. 

The  Bureau  of  Research  and  Guidance  was  established  in  Berkeley  in 
August,  1919.  The  two  important  functions  of  the  Bureau  are  indicated  in 
the  title,  (1)  research,  (2)  guidance.  By  research  we  mean  a  careful  and 
scientific  study.  Such  studies  are  made  of  any  function  of  the  school  work 
which  the  superintendent  or  Board  of  Education  decides  is  in  greatest  need 
of  attention.  Guidance  enters  by  way  of  recommendation  or  advice  after 
research  has  been  made  and  all  available  data  analyzed.  The  purposes  of 
the  bureau  therefore  are  to  gather  facts,  to  help  interpret  those  facts,  and  to 
give  counsel  and  advice. 

With  these  general  functions  of  the  bureau  in  mind,  the  specific  problems 
to  which  attention  has  been  given  are  as  follows: 

1.  Statistics  of  (a)  enrollment,  (b)  attendance,  (c)  age,  grade,  and 
progress  reports,  (d)  data  on  failures  and  extra  promotion,  (e)  size 
of  classes. 

2.  Testing  program:  (a)  mental  tests,  (b)  tests  of  subject  matter  and 
achievement,  (c)  training  of  teachers  for  testing. 

3.  Special  classes. 

4.  School  counseling  program. 

The  work  that  the  bureau  has  done  relating  to  the  problems  mentioned 
above  can  not  be  analyzed  or  set  forth  in  detail  in  a  single  report  such  as 
this.    I  shall  mention  only  a  few  of  the  outstanding  features. 

Enrollment. — Charts  have  been  made  showing  the  enrollment,— (a)  the 
first  week  of  each  term,  (b)  each  month,  (c)  for  every  classroom  in  the 
elementary  school,  (d)  for  each  class  in  the  junior  high  and  senior  high  school, 
(e)  total  for  each  school  of  the  city,  (f)  total  for  each  grade  in  the  city, 
(g)  total  for  each  division — kindergarten,  elementary,  junior  high,  and  senior 
high.  Such  data  are  tabulated  and  graphed  so  that  the  administrative  officers 
may  get  at  a  glance  information  necessary  to  the  proper  organization  and 
direction  of  the  school  system. 

The  following  table  shows  the  enrollment  in  the  various  school  divisions 
during  the  month  of  May  for  the  years  as  indicated: 

ENROLLMENT 

Kdg.  Elem.  Jr.  High  High  Total 

May,  1920   416      5037     2328      1170      8951 

May,  1921        560     5317     2550     1730*     10157 

May,  1922 563     5448     2753     2262*     11026 

*  Includes  part   time  school. 

—  7  — 


Attendance.— The  Attendance  Department  has  assisted  in  gathering 
and  tabulating  the  school  census  data  and  has  looked  after  all  problems  of 
compulsory  attendance  and  work  permits.  The  magnitude  of  this  work  may- 
be judged  from  the  following  tabulation  of  calls  made  by  the  attendance 
officer  during  the  school  year  1921-22: 

El.  Schools  H.  S.  Jr.  H.  S.  Part  Time  Total 

No.  cases  reported  to  At- 
tendance   Officer 128  53  203  243  627 

No.    calls    made    by    At- 
tendance  Officer 186  86  337  482  1091 

Cases   of   truancy   appre- 
hended         10  24  54  8  96 

Age-Grade. — Age-grade  reports  have  been  tabulated  according  to  the 
form  used  by  the  state  for  the  past  two  years.  For  this  report  a  pupil  is  at 
age  who  is  in  the  first  grade  and  is  six  or  seven  years  old;  in  the  second  grade, 
seven  or  eight  years  old;  third  grade,  eight  or  nine  years  old,  etc.  The  follow- 
ing table  gives  a  general  summary  of  the  under-age,  at-age,  and  over-ageness 
in  the  elementary  grades: 

ELEMENTARY  SCHOOL   (Grades  1-6  Inc.) 

Xo.  Pupils  Per  Cent 

Year    1920-21— Under-age 301  5.7 

At-age 4065  77.5 

Over-age 876  16.7 

Year    1921-22— Under-age 380  7.2 

At-age 4128  78.9 

Over-age 721  13.7 

Non-Promotion  or  Pupil  Failures. — Studies  have  been  made  of  the 
pupil  failures  at  the  close  of  each  term.  The  following  table  shows  the 
percentage  of  such  failures  for  each  term  since  June,  1919: 

PERCENTAGE    OF    FAILURE    FOR    TERM    ENDING 

Grade        June,  1919    Jan.,  1920     June,  1920    Jan.,  1921    June,  1921    Jan.,  1922 

L-l 16.4  13.5  11.7  11.4  10.7  12.8 

H-l 7.4  7.4  8.1  7.2  9.5  9.8 

L-2 8.0  4.7  6.1  2.6  5.6  5.6 

H-2 3.6  4.8  2.7  3.5  3.6  3.6 

L-3 6.2  5.9  3.8  3.1  3.5  4.1 

H-3 5.0  3.3  2.5  1.4  2.6  3.6 

L-4 3.8  4.2  4.7  4.7  3.0  5.2 

H-4 4.1  6.0  2.3  4.5  2.2  4.3 

L-5 6.0  5.2  5.0  5.6  2.1  2.2 

H-5 6.6  1.3  3.4  2.9  2.3  3.3 

L-6 5.0  4.8  2.8  2.5  2.7  3.4 

H-6 5.0  2.7  2.9  1.2  1.5  2.6 

Total 6.6       5.5       4.7       4.4       4.3       4.7 

Size  of  Classes. — The  size  of  the  class  unit  is  an  important  element  in 
school  costs.  Small  classes  are  expensive,  large  classes  cannot  be  taught 
effectively.  During  the  past  three  years  the  number  of  small  classes  has  been 
greatly  reduced.  The  present  tendency  is  toward  class  enrollment  of  from 
thirty  to  thirty-five  pupils.     The  following  table  reveals  the  size  of  classes 


in  the  elementary  schools  one  month  after  the  term  began  for  the  years  as 
indicated: 

Numbi 

No.  Pupils  Enrolled  tiding   Special 

Year  1920  Year  1921  1922 

Less  than  20 8  2  0 

20-24 22  10  5 

25-29 38  38  29 

30-34 48  54  62 

35-39 33  41  45 

40-44 7  12  12 

Median 30  32  34 

Tests  in  Subject-Matter  and  Achievement. — A  large  number  of  tests 
of  achievement  in  subject-matter  have  been  given  for  the  purpose  of  deter- 
mining the  standards  of  work  being  done  in  our  schools  compared  with  that 
being  done  in  other  cities,  and  also  comparisons  have  been  made,  grade  against 
grade,  and  school  against  school,  in  our  own  system..  Such  tests  are  used 
for  the  purpose  of  improving  classroom  instruction  and  are  basic  in  the 
formulation  and  development  of  courses  of  study.  During  the  past  two  years 
two  surveys  have  been  made  in  arithmetic,  reading,  and  spelling,  and  one  in 
hand-writing.  Space  does  not  permit  the  tabulation  of  these  results  in  detail. 
In  general  the  test  results  of  the  second  year  show  marked  improvement  over 
those  of  the  first  year. 

Special  Classes. — Thirteen  special  classes  have  been  organized  in  the 
elementary  schools  for  children  of  inferior  mental  capacity.  Children  are 
placed  in  such  classes  only  after  careful  study  in  which  it  is  found  that  they 
cannot  work  satisfactorily  in  a  regular  class.  In  addition  to  these  classes, 
approximately  three  hundred  over-age  children  have  been  transferred  (always 
with  the  recommendation  of  the  teacher  and  principal,  and  with  the  consent 
of  the  parent)  from  the  elementary  schools  of  the  city  to  the  special  classes 
of  the  Burbank  Junior  High  School.  As  a  result,  our  elementary  schools  have 
very  few  over-age  problem  cases  in  the  regular  grades.  Any  child  may  be  a 
candidate  for  such  transfer  to  the  Junior  High  School  who  has  reached  the 
age  of  thirteen,  provided  the  teacher  and  principal  agree  that  such  child  can 
get  little  or  no  good  where  he  is  working,  and  also  providing  the  mental  test 
shows  a  low  mentality.  No  child  is  transferred  without  the  recommendation 
of  the  Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Research  and  Guidance.  More  than  ninety 
per  cent  of  these  pupils  have  made  good  school  citizens  in  the  Burbank 
Junior  High.  There  they  are  exposed  to  all  types  of  work  and  may  take 
whatever  their  capacities  permit. 

School  Counselors. — The  high  school,  the  junior  high  schools,  and  most 
of  the  elementary  schools  have  school  counselors,  who  devote  a  part  of  their 
time  to  teaching  and  a  part  to  counseling.  The  main  duty  of  the  counselor 
is  to  assist  the  principal  in  the  discovery  and  adjustment  of  the  misfit  child. 

In  the  junior  high  school,  during  the  last  semester  of  the  ninth  year,  each 
child  is  carefully  instructed  in  what  the  senior  high  school  has  to  offer.  The 
counselors  (both  junior  and  senior  high),  the  principal,  the  child,  and  the 
parent  cooperate  in  a  most  careful  effort  to  select  the  high  school  course  best 
ntted  to  the  needs  of  the  child.  The  program  carried  for  the  first  semester 
in  the  senior  high  school  is  made  out  and  signed  by  the  counselor  and  by  the 
parent  before  the  child  graduates  from  the  junior  high  school.     Similar  care 

—  9  — 


is  given  to  the  study  of  the  child's  needs  when  he  goes  from  the  elementary 
school  to  the  junior  high  school.  This  system  of  counseling  in  our-  schools 
is  of  tremendous  importance  to  the  lives  of  our  children. 

Mental  Testing. — During  the  past  three  years  the  Director  and  the 
Assistant  Director  of  the  Bureau  of  Research  and  Guidance  have  given  three 
courses  in  mental  testing,  attended  by  approximately  one  hundred  and  forty 
of  our  teachers  and  principals.  Sixty-five  teachers  have  now  been  certified 
to  do  individual  mental  testing,  and  twenty-four  to  do  group  mental  testing. 
After  careful  direction  and  observation  in  the  giving  and  scoring  of  tests  the 
following  table  illustrates  the  growth  of  the  work  done  in  mental  testing 
during  the  past  three  years: 

Year  No.  of  Pupils 

Individual  mental  tests 1919-20  300 

(Stanford  Revision)  1920-21  1000 

1921-22  1500 

Group  mental  tests 1919-20  500 

1920-21  3000 

1921-22  6000 

We  have  considered  the  mental  test  as  one  of  the  most  important  avenues 
through  which  to  approach  the  study  of  individual  differences  in  school 
children.  This  type  of  work  is  comparatively  new  in  the  field  of  school 
administration.  Some  have  questioned  the  use  of  mental  tests,  others  have 
thought  that  we  have  used  them  arbitrarily  to  place  children  here  or  there 
or  elsewhere.  We  wish  here  to  emphasize  that  it  is  not  our  purpose  ever  to 
base  the  placement  of  a  child  upon  the  result  of  a  mental  test  alone.  In  the 
following  chapter  we  shall  present  in  detail  some  of  the  scientific  data  to  show 
the  reasons  for  the  use  of  a  mental  testing  program  as  an  integral  part  of  our 
public  school  administration.  Such  a  program,  if  efficiently  carried  out,  must 
result  in  a  better  adaptation  of  education  to  fit  the  needs  of  every  type  of 
child.  It  must  result  in  a  better  plan  of  gradation  and  promotion,  and  a 
better  course  of  study. 


—  10 


CHAPTER    II. 


MENTAL  TESTING  AND  SCHOOL  ADMINISTRATION 

The  Need  for  Better  Classification  of  School  Children. — The 
numerous  studies  and  surveys  made  of  American  public  schools  in  recent 
years  show  conclusively  that  past  methods  of  administration  have  failed  to 
group  children  satisfactorily,  whether  according  to  age,  mental  capacity,  or 
ability  to  progress  in  school  work.  Two  causes  have  been  operative  during 
the  past  decade,  steadily  tending  to  bring  about  wider  differences  than  hereto- 
fore. The  first  of  these  is  the  increasing  cost  of  education  with  consequent 
pressure  to  increase  the  size  of  classes;  the  second  is  the  increase  in  the  scope 
of  the  compulsory  attendance  laws,  together  with  the  vigor  with  which  they 
are  enforced.  Our  law  in  California  compels  full  time  attendance  in  regular 
day  schools  until  the  age  of  16  years  and  part  time  attendance  until  high 
school  graduation  or  the  age  of  18  years.  The  course  of  study,  rate  of  prog- 
ress, and  methods  of  instruction  now  in  use  have  been  disturbed  if  not  severely 
shaken  by  the  introduction  into  our  schools  of  large  numbers  of  children 
who  must  remain  until  16  years  of  age  who  formerly  stayed  out  of  school  or 
quit  early  because  they  did  not  fit.  Clearly  some  changes  in.  methods  of 
administration  must  be  made  if  we  are  to  meet  the  needs  of  changing  con- 
ditions of  education.  The  solution  of  the  problem  is  highly  important  to 
classroom  teacher,  school  executive,  and  the  general  public. 

The  following  study  shows  the  wide  distribution  in  age  and  mental 
capacity  found  in  the  kindergarten  and  first  grades  of  our  public  schools,  and 
reveals  both  why  and  how  mental  testing*  can  serve  school  administration 
in  meeting  some  of  the  problems  resulting  from  such  variation.  Nearly  all 
children  in  America  enter  school  either  in  the  first  grade  or  kindergarten 
at  the  age  of  5  or  6  years.  The  first  few  years  in  school  are  the  most  plastic 
years  of  the  child's  life.  Habits  and  attitudes  toward  learning  are  formed 
that  tend  to  be  permanent.  It  is  well  that  we  look  with  greatest  cace  into 
this  important  period  of  training.  The  study  of  individual  differences  and 
proper  classification  of  children  should  begin  as  soon  as  the  child  enters 
school.  Hence  we  base  our  study  upon  the  consideration  of  the  kindergarten 
and  first  grade  child.  What  differences  in  capacity  are  found  among  these 
children?  What  do  these  differences  imply?  How  reliable  are  tests  made 
in  kindergarten  and  first  grade?  These  are  some  of  the  important  questions 
to  be  considered. 


*  It  should  be  kept  in  mind  that  mental  tests  as  used  in  this  study  refer  to  tests  of  endowment  or 
innate  capacity  and  not  to  accomplishment  in  subject  matter  or  skill  as  in  multiplication  or  handwriting. 

—  11  — 


SECTION  1. 

DISTRIBUTION   OF  AGES    (CHRONOLOGICAL   AND   MENTAL)    IN 
KINDERGARTEN  AND  FIRST  GRADE 

Kindergarten — 186  Children. 

Figure  1  (page  13)  shows  the  distribution  found  among  186  kindergarten 
children.  The  cases  are  unselected,  involving  all  the  children  working  in 
the  kindergartens  where  the  tests*  were  made;  the  data  were  compiled  at 
about  the  middle  of  the  first  term  spent  in  kindergarten  work.  It  will  be 
observed  that  the  following  ranges  of  chronological  and  mental  ages  occur: 

Range  of  chronological  age  (C.  A.):  4  years  4  months  to  7  years  10 
months. 

Median=5  years  8  months. 

Range  of  mental  age  (M.  A.) :  3  years  6  months  to  8  years  4  months. 
Median=5  years  10  months. 

The  group  as  a  whole  is  normal  by  test  results,  but  there  is  a  wide  spread 
of  distribution.  Theoretically  the  kindergarten  should  contain  only  children 
between  5  and  6  years  of  age.  This  group  contains  8.6%  below  this  age,  and 
33.3%  above,  while  58.1%  are  at  age.  The  mental  age  distribution  shows 
even  less  homogeneity, — 15.6%  below  5,  42:2%  above  6,  and  39.2%  between 
5  and  6.  Less  than  half  of  these  children  are  at  age  mentally  for  the  kinder- 
garten work. 

The  most  significant  fact  to  be  noted  is  that  these  kindergarten  children 
represent  mental  ages  in  six  different  year  groups.  Imagine  the  difficulty  of 
the  teacher  who  tries  to  put  the  same  problems  before  a  group  of  children, 
some  of  whom  are  mentally  3  years  old,  others  4,  5,  6,  7,  and  still  others  8. 
To  accomplish  satisfactory  results  with  a  large  class  of  children  who  have 
such  a  wide  range  of  mental  ability  is  an  impossibile  task  and  cannot  be 
expected  of  any  teacher,  however  capable  she  may  be. 

L-l  Grade — 325  Children  in  Seven  Different  Schools. 

For  the  purpose  of  showing  the  wide  range  of  difference  in  capacity  in 
different  schools,  we  present  the  mental  age  distributions  found  in  the  L-l 
grade  of  several  schools.  Figure  2  (page  14)  represents  the  mental  age 
distribution  of  all  the  L-l  grade  pupils  found  working  in  seven  different 
schools.  Note  the  marked  differences  existing  in  the  ranges,  as  well  as  in 
the  median  mental  ages  of  such  schools  as  A,  C,  and  G.  A  tabular  summary 
of  conditions  follows: 

School  Xo.  Pupils 

A 35 

B 110 

C 29 

D 23 

E 53 

F 47 

G 28 

Totals 325  3-10  to  9-4  6-4 


Range  of  M.  A. 

Median  M.  A 

3-10  to  6-10 

5-8 

4-2     to  9-4 

6-2 

5-4     to  7-10 

6-4 

4-6     to  7-2 

6-4 

5-4     to  8-10 

6-6 

4-6     to  8-10 

6-6 

5-0     to  8-8 

7-0 

*  The  Stanford  Revision  of  the  Binet  scale  was  the  form  used  in  all  individual  tests. 

—  12  — 


Figure  1. 

distribution  of  chronological  ages  and  mental  ages  of 
186  kindergarten  children. 


_ 

Median=5  years  8  months 
No. 

Below  5  years 16 

From  5  to  6  years....  108 
Above  6  years 62 

Total 186 


to    to 

tO     to     tO 

tO      to     73 


y 

y 

1 

[ 

y 

8.6 
58.1 

X 

y 

y 
y 
y 

>; 

33.3 

y 

y 

y 

100.0 

y 
X 

y 

y 
y 

y 

y 

X 

y 

y 

y 

y 

y 

y 

o 

y 

y 

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y 

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o 
o 

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y 

y 

X 

o 

o 

y 

y 

y 

y 

o 

o 

y 

y 

y 

y 

o 

o 

o 

X 

y 

y 

y 

y 

o 

o 

o 

X 

y 

y 

y 

y 

o 

o 

o 

X 

X 

y 

y 

y 

o 

o 

0 

X 

X 

y 

y 

y 

y 

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c 

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a    X 

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y 

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o 

o 

o 

o 

3      X 

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y 

y 

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o 

o 

o 

o 

3  2  4  6  8  10  4  2  4  6  8  10  5  2  4  6  8  10  6_  2  4  6  8  10  7  2  4  6  8  10  8  2  4  6  8  10 

Note. — Read  the  table  thus:     2  children  were  4  years  4  months  old,  3  were  4  years  6  months,  5  were 
4  years  8   months,  etc.     The  s  means  under  age,  the  x  means  at  age,   the  o   means  over  age. 


Mental  Ages 

Median=S  years  10  months 
No. 

Below  5  years 29 

From  5  to  6  years...     73 
Above  6  years 84 

Total 186 


to   to 

to   to    to    to 


0 


tOtOtO^toXX^^X      X     o    boooo     OOP o_ 


3  2468  10  42468  10  52468  10  62468  10  72468  10  82468  10 

Xbte.— Read  the  table  thus:      2  children  were  by  mental  test  3  years  6  months,  3  were  4  years  2 
months,   etc. 


13  — 


Figure  2, 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  MENTAL  AGES  IN  L-l   GRADE  ROOMS  IN  SEVEN 

SCHOOLS. 


School  A — 35  pupils 


Median  M.  A.  =  5  yrs.  8  mos. 
Median    I.  Q.  =        86 


CO 
Of) 

Cfl 

X 

X 

X 

Cfl 

CO 

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CO 

CO 

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10_£2  4  6  8  10^2  4  6  8  10^2  4  6  8  10^2  4  6  8  10  8  2  4  6  8  10JI  2  4  6  8 


School  B— 110  pupils 


CO 

co 

Cfl 

co 

co 

CO 

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Cfl 

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CO 

CO 

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co 

co    co 

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CO     CO 

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X 

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X 

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X 

X 

X 

X 

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X 

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X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

o  o 

o  o 

o  o  o 

o  o  o 

o  o  o 


Median  M.  A.  =  6  yrs.  2  mos. 
Median    I.  Q.  =       88 


o 
o  o 


10  42468  10  52468  10  62468  10  72468  10  82468  10  9246 


School  C— 29  pupils 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

co    X    X    X    x    x     X 


Median  M.  A.  =  6  yrs.  4  mos. 
Median    I.  Q.  =      101 


o  o 
o  o 


10  42468  10  5  2468  10  62468  10  72468  10  82468  10  924  6 


School  D— 23  pupils 


X   X 

X    X 

XXX 

XXX 

XXX 

Median  M.  A.=6  yrs.  4  mos. 
Median    I.  Q.=        99 


10  42468  10  5  2468  10  62468  10  72468  10  82468  10  9246 


School  E — 53  pupils 


X    X 

X    X 

XXX 

X 

XXX 

X 

X 

XXX 

X 

X 

X    X    X    X 

X 

CO 

X 

X    x    X    X 

X 

CO     CO     CO 

X 

X    xj    X    X 

X 

Median  M.  A.  =  6  yrs.  6  mos. 


Median    I.  Q.  = 


97 


o  o  o  o  o 


10  42468  10  52468  10  62468  10  72468  10  82468  10  9246 


School  F — 47  pupils 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

Median  M.  A.  =  6  yrs.  6  mos. 
Median     I.  Q.=        97 


10  42468  10  52468  10  62468  10  72468  10  82468  10  92468 


School  G— 28  pupils 


Median  M.  A.  =  7  yrs.  0  mos. 
Median    I.  Q,  —      110 


o  o  o 

XX         X 

X    O   o  o 

X    X    X    X 

X     O   o  o 

o  o  o  o 


10  42468  10  5  2468  10  62468  10  72468  10  82468  10  9246 


—  14  — 


School  A  has  35  pupils  ranging  in  mental  age  from  3  years  10  months 
to  6  years  10  months,  the  median  mental  age  being  5  years  8  months.  More 
than  50%  of  the  pupils  in  Room  A  test  below  the  6-year  mental  age,  while 
none  test  above  the  7-year  mark.  On  the  other  hand,  50%  of  the  pupils  in 
Room  G  test  above  7  years  mentally,  thus  showing  a  mental  development 
equal  to  that  found  in  those  pupils  who  are  mastering  the  work  of  the  next 
grade  higher.  If  the  teachers  of  these  two  rooms  were  to  be  judged  by  the 
amount  of  the  course  of  study  they  can  get  their  pupils  to  master  in  the  same 
length  of  time,  it  could  easily  happen  that  a  weak  teacher  in  Room  G  would 
be  judged  superior,  while  a  strong  teacher  in  Room  A  would  be  considered 
inferior.  This  table  furnishes  concrete  evidence  that  a  teacher  should  not 
be  judged  by  the  results  of  her  work  until  it  is  known  what  is  the  "nature  of 
the  clay"  with  which  she  has  to  work. 

Figure  3  (below)  throws  into  one  general  distribution  the  mental  ages 
of  all  the  children  represented  in  Figure  2.  We  find  here  a  median  mental 
age  of  6  years  4  months,  which  is  about  the  age  to  be  expected  of  the  child 
who  is  doing  satisfactory  L-l  grade  work.  Eighty-nine  of  these  children, 
however,  or  27.4^,  of  the  whole  group,  tested  below  6  years  mentally.  Since 
first  grade  work  is  planned  for  the  6-year-old,  these  children  theoretically  do 
not  belong  in  the  first  grade.  In  actual  fact,  90%  of  this  group  below  6 
failed  to  pass  to  the  next  grade  at  the  end  of  the  term.    Most  of  the  failures 

Figure  3. 


DISTRIBUTION  OF  MENTAL  AGES  OF  325   L-l   GRADE   CHILDREN  tt 


SEVEN  SCHOOLS. 


Mextal  Ages 
Median=6  years  4  months 

Xo. 

Below  6  years 89 

From  6  to  7  years....  163 

Above  7  years 73 

Total 325 


•/. 


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03  03 

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y 

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10  £2  4  6  8  10  5_2  4  6  8  10  6_2  4  6  8  10  7_  2  4  6  8  10  £  2  4  68  10  9^2468 


Note — Read  the  table  thus: 
tested  4  yrs.  4  mos.,  etc. 


1  child  tested  with  M.  A.  3  yrs.   10  mos.,   1   tested  4  yrs.   2   mos.,  6 
—  15  — 


in  the  first  year  of  school  work  come  from  that  class  of  children  who,  accord- 
ing to  test  results,  have  not  yet  reached  the  mental  age  necessary  to  master 
the  first  grade  work  without  an  unusual  amount  of  time  or  personal  attention. 
On  the  other  hand.  73  children  of  this  same  group,  or  22.5' ',  of  the  whole, 
revealed  a  mental  ability  above  the  7-year  level,  and  hence  were  not  working 
up  to  their  full  capacity  while  placed  in  the  L-l  grade.  The  marking  of  time 
in  the  receiving  classes  by  such  superior  children,  who  should  be  progressing 
at  a  rate  commensurate  with  their  mentality,  is  one  of  the  serious  danger 
points  of  our  educational  program.  Lacking  sufficient  work  to  keep  them 
busy,  they  get  into  mischief  or  daudle  at  their  tasks  while  interest  in  school 
tends  to  grow  dull.  Opportunity  should  be  afforded  such  children  either  for 
enrichment  of  the  course  of  study  or  for  more  rapid  progress. 

235  L-l  Grade  Children. 

A  second  group  of  L-l  grade  pupils,  tested  during  the  first  eight  weeks 
of  another  school  year,  affords  the  opportunity  for  a  comparison  of  the  mental 
and  chronological  ages  at  the  time  of  the  test;  Figure  4  (page  17)  represents 
such  distributions.  The  same  facts  are  evident  that  have  already  appeared: 
i.  e.,  the  wide  range  existing  in  both  distributions  and  the  large  percentage 
of  children  whose  mental  capacities  are  not  equal  to  the  demands  made  upon 
them  for  first  grade  work.  The  group  shown  in  Figure  3  had  27.4%  below  6 
mentally,  while  this  group  has  35.7%  below  6.  This  group  shows  22.1% 
above  7,  which  is  almost  identical  with  the  percentage  above  7  in  Figure  3. 

Here  the  table  reveals  a  greater  percentage  of  cases  in  the  upper  year 
levels  of  chronological  age  than  was  found  in  the  kindergarten  table.  The 
reason  for  this  is  evident;  as  a  rule,  except  in  most  serious  cases  of  mental 
inferiority,  a  child  does  not  remain  in  the  kindergarten  after  he  has  passed 
the  age  of  6  years;  at  that  time  he  enters  the  first  grade  by  legal  right  regard- 
less of  what  his  capacity  has  proven  to  be.  Unhappily,  however,  if  his 
mentality  is  low,  he  remains  in  that  first  grade  term  after  term  unless  some 
special  provision  is  made  for  him  in  a  segregated  class.  Hence  it  frequently 
happens  that  7-  or  8-year-old  children  are  found  working  by  the  side  of  the 
tiny  6-year-old  beginner.  I  found  one  12 -year-old  in  the  first  grade  who 
had  started  to  school  the  same  year  most  of  his  classmates  were  born.  Note 
also  that  the  lower  end  of  the  distribution  of  chronological  ages  in  Fig.  4 
ends  abrouptly  at  5  years  10  months.  This  is  due  to  the  law  requiring  a 
child  to  be  within  three  months  of  6  years  before  he  can  be  registered  in  the 
first  grade. 

Pupils  Testing  Below  6  Years  Mentally. 

In  this  group  of  235  L-l  grade  children  84,  or  35.7%,  tested  below  the 
age  of  6  years  mentally.  Figure  5  (page  18)  shows  the  distribution  of  the 
chronological  and  mental  ages  of  these  children.  Note  that  the  median  C.  A. 
of  this  group  is  6  years  2  months,  while  the  median  M.  A.  is  only  5  years  4 
months,  with  a  median  intelligence  quotient  (I.  Q.)  of  86.  A  gap  of  almost 
a  year  exists  between  the  average  mental  capacity  of  these  children  and  that 
of  a  normal  group  in  the  first  grade.  It  is  not  surprising,  therefore,  that  they 
should  be  reported  as  doing  unsatisfactory  work.  All  were  reported  by  their 
teachers  as  either  below  average  in  work  or  repeating  the  grade.  Chil- 
dren who  test  below  6  years  mentally  are  almost  never  ready  to  attempt  the 
regular  first  grade  work  with  a  regular  class  under  standard  conditions. 

—  16  — 


Figure  4. 
distribution  of  chronological  ages  and  mental  ages  of 

235    L-l    GRADE    CHILDREN 


Chronological  Ages 

Median  =  6  years  4  months 
No. 

Below  6  years 24         10.2 

From  6  to  7  years...  166         70.6 
Above  7  years 45         19.2 

Total 235  100.0 


x 

x  x 

X  x 

X  x 

X  x 

X  x 

X  x 

X  x 

X  x 

X  x 

X  x 

X  x 

X  x 

X  x 

X  x 

X  x 

X  x 

X  X 

X  x 

X  X 

X  X 


X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X 

X    X 

XXX 

XXX 

XXX 

XXX 


X 

X 
,  X 

XX  XXX  X 
XX  XXX  X 
XX  XXX  X 
X 


X  X 

X  X 

X  X 

X  X 

X  X 

X  X 

X  X 

X  X 

X  X 

X  X 

X  X 

X  X 


X  X 


y 

X  XX 
XXX 
XXX 
XXX 
XXX 
XXX 
XXX 
XXX 
XXX 
XXX 
XXX 


o  o 

o  o 

o  o  o 

o  o  o 


o  o  o 


68  10  42468  10  52468  10  62468  10  72468  10  82468  10  9246 


Mental  Ages 

Median  =  6  years  2  months 

No.  <; 

Below  6  years 84  35.7 

From  6  to  7  years....     99  42.2 

Above  7  years 52  22.1 

Total 235  100.0 


■r, 

xn 

CO 

CO 

CO 

cfl 

CO 

CO 

CO 

w 

CO 

CO 

CO 

CO 

03 

CO 

w 

CO 

CO 

co 

CO 

CO 

co 

m 

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CO 

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6  8  10  4  2  4  6  8  10  5_2  4  6  8  10  6  2  4  6  8  10  J_2  4  6  8  10_8_2  4  6  8  10_9_  2  4  6 


—  17  — 


Figure  5. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF   CHRONOLOGICAL  AGES  AND   MENTAL  AGES   OF  84   L-l 
CHILDREN  WHO   TESTED   BELOW   6   MENTALLY. 

Chronological  Ages 

Median  =  6  years  2  months 


x 
x 
x 

XXX 
XXX 
XXX 
XXX 
XXX 
XXX 

X  X  X  X 

X  X  X  X 

X  X  X  X  X 

X  X  X  X  X 

X  X  X  X  X 

X  X  X  X  X 


o 
o  o  o 


68  10  42468  10  5  2468  10  62468  10  72468  10  82468  10  9246 


Mental  Ages 

Median  =  5  years  4  months 


r. 

JO 

CO 

X 

JO 

X 

to 

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H-l  Grade — 171  Children. 

Figure  6  (page  19)  shows  the  ages,  both  chronological  and  mental,  of 
171  H-l  grade  children.  These  children  represent  schools  in  the  sections  of 
the  city  where  the  percentage  of  foreign  born  is  very  high  and  the  social 
status  low.  Here  is  a  marked  example  of  what  often  happens  before  the  first 
grade  of  our  school  program  has  been  completed  by  children  who  are  men- 
tally inferior. 

Observe  the  contrast  in  the  ranges  and  medians  of  the  C.  A.  and  M.  A.: 

C.  A.— Range  =5-10  to  12-2 
Median  =  7-6 

M.  A.— Range  =  4-8     to     9-0 
Median  =  6-6 

Thirty-three  of  these  children   (19.3rr  of  the  group)   tested  below  6  years 

—  18  — 


mentally,  while  only  one  child  was  below  6  chronologically,  but  with  a  mental 
age  so  far  advanced  that  he  was  given  the  opportunity  to  work  at  his  own 
rate  of  capacity. 

At  the  other  end  of  the  scale  were  116  children  (67.8%)  who  were  older 
than  7  years  in  chronological  age,  some  of  them  reaching  the  9,  10,  11,  and 
even   12  year  group  before  being  promoted   from  the  H-l   grade.     Their 

Figure  6. 

DISTRIBUTION  OF  CHRONOLOGICAL  AGES  AND   MENTAL  AGES  OF   171 

H-l    GRADE    CHILDREN. 
Chronological  Ages 

Median  =  7  years  6  months 
No.  '  i 

Below  6  years 1  0.6 

From  6  to  7  years....     54         31.6 
Above  7  years 116         67.8 

Total 171       100.0 


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10  62468  10  72468  10  82468  10  92468  10  10  2468  10  11  2468  10  12  2 


Mental  Ages 

Median  =  6  years  6  months 

No.  >'■ 

Below  6  years 33         19.3 

From  6  to  7  years....     87         50.9 
Above  7  years 51         29.8 

Total 171       100.0 

x 

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19  — 


capacity  was  not  equal  to  first  grade  work,  but  they  have  been  required  to 
try  it  and  fail  and  repeat  for  two,  three,  or  four  years.  (A  change  in  require- 
ments should  be  required.)  This  is  a  condition  which  is  in  most  serious  need 
of  readjustment  in  our  educational  program,  in  order  that  these  children  who 
have  been  endowed  with  limited  or  even  inferior  capacity  may  not  be  held 
back  in  the  primary  grades  until,  in  their  discouragement,  they  chafe  under 
compulsory  school  attendance  and  develop  an  attitude  of  antagonism  and 
rebellion  toward  the  whole  system.  A  solution  of  the  problem  has  been  at 
least  partially  worked  out  through  the  organization  of  special  classes  for 
the  mentally  inferior,  which  will  be  discussed  in  a  later  section. 


SECTION  2. 


RELIABILITY  OF  TESTS  FOR  PROGNOSIS 

How  Nearly  Does  the  Mental  Test  Show  What  a  Child  Is  Able  to 

Do  In  School? 

The  previous  section  has  analyzed  and  discussed  the  mental  ages  of 
children  in  the  kindergarten  and  first  grade  as  determined  by  the  individual 
mental  test.  Just  how  far  this  mental  test  can  be  relied  upon  for  a  correct 
diagnosis  of  the  capacity  of  these  children  is  the  next  problem  for  considera- 
tion. Out  of  each  grade  of  children  whose  mental  ages  have  been  analyzed 
(i.  e.,  kindergarten,  L-l,  and  H-l),  from  75  to  100  cases  were  found  in  the 
same  school  two  years  after  the  time  of  testing.  Following  is  a  study  of  the 
rate  of  school  progress  during  that  time  in  relation  to  both  the  mental  age 
and  the  intelligence  quotient. 

PROGNOSIS  ON  THE  BASIS  OF  I.  Q. 

Kindergarten  Children. 

Of  the  186  kindergarten  children  originally  studied  with  reference  to 
C.  A.  and  M.  A.,  76  were  located  in  the  schools  two  years  after  the  test  had 
been  given.  These  children  were  first  divided  into  three  groups  according 
to  their  intelligence  quotients:  (1)  Below  90;  (2)  90  to  109;  (3)  110  and 
above.  The  progress  of  each  child  for  two  years  was  then  traced,  and  again 
three  divisions  were  made:  (1)  slow;  (2)  normal;  (3)  rapid.*  The  fol- 
lowing table  indicates  the  type  of  progress  made  by  the  children  with  various 
intelligence  quotients: 

I-   Q.  Slow  Normal  Rapid  Total 

No.  %  No.  ';  No.  %  No.  '; 

Below  90 13       76.5  4       23.5  0         0.0  17       22.3 

90-109  8       32.0  15       60.0  2         8.0  25       32.9 

110  and  above 3         8.8  20       58.8  11       32.4  34       44.8 

Total 24       31.6  39       51.3  13       17.1  76     100.0 

Note. — Read  the  table  thus:  of  17  kindergarten  children  testing  below  90  I.  Q.,  13  were  retarded 
one  term  or  more  during  the  first  two  years  of  the  school  program;  4  made  normal  progress;  none  were 
accelerated,   etc. 

*  A  child  is  considered  as  having  made  "slow"  progress  if  he  has  failed  of  promotion  one  or  more 
terms  during  the  two  years  following  the  test;  he  his  made  "normal"  progress  if  he  has  moved  on  regu- 
larly at  the  rate  of  one-half  grade  each  term;  he  has  made  "rapid"  progress  if  he  has  been  able  at  any 
time  during  the  two  years  to  cover  more  than  one  term's  work  in  six  months. 

—  20  — 


Observe  in  the  preceding  table  how  the  percentage  of  retardation  decreases 
as  the  intelligent  quotient  increases;  i.  e.,  from  76.5%  for  those  testing  below 
90  I.  Q.  to  8.8%  for  those  testing  110  I.  Q.  or  above.  On  the  other  hand, 
note  the  percentage  of  acceleration  for  the  superior  children  (32.4%)  as 
compared  with  its  total  absence  for  the  inferior  group.  Of  the  group  of 
children  testing  from  90  to  109  I.  Q.,  representing  those  having  normal 
capacity,  60.0' ,  have  also  made  normal  progress.  It  is  true  that  the  intelli- 
gence quotient,  of  itself,  can  never  be  used  to  determine  the  grade  in  which 
a  child  shall  work;  the  important  factor  is.  of  course,  the  mental  age  of  a 
child.  The  general  trend,  however,  as  indicated  by  the  table,  is  evident; 
i.  e..  that  an  inferior  I.  Q.,  as  determined  by  a  mental  test  given  in  the  kinder- 
garten, usually  means  retardation  at  the  very  beginning  of  a  child's  school 
life,  while  a  superior  I.  Q.  means  at  least  normal  advancement,  with  possibility 
of  acceleration  if  provision  for  it  is  made.  The  mental  test  furnishes  a 
valuable  index  for  a  child's  chances  for  success  in  school  work. 

L-l  Grade  Children. 

Of  the  235  children  studied  in  the  L-l  grade.  95  were  traced  for  two  years, 
with  the  following  results: 

I.  Q.                                          Slow                             Normal  Rapid                             Total 

No.           %  No.         r;  No.          %  No 

Below  90 27       87.1               4       12.9  0         0.0  31       32.6 

90-109  18       36.7  26       53.1  5       10.2  49       51.6 

100  and  above 0         0.0               7       46.6  8       53.4  15       15.8 

Total 45       47.4  37       38.9  13       13.7  95     100.0 

The  above  table  reveals  an  even  higher  degree  of  reliability  of  prognosis 
for  the  mental  test  than  appeared  for  kindergarten  children.  Here  87.1% 
of  the  children  testing  below  90  I.  Q.  show  retardation  during  the  two  years 
following  the  test;  of  the  4  who  proceeded  at  normal  rate,  2  were  very  much 
over-age  at  the  time  of  the  test,  and  hence  had  the  advantage  of  previous 
experience  in  school  work.  At  the  other  end  of  the  scale,  the  15  children 
who  tested  110  or  above  all  made  either  normal  or  rapid  progress,  with  no 
retardation  occurring  in  any  case.  As  with  the  kindergarten  group,  so  here 
an  I.  Q.  of  from  90  to  109  appears  slightly  more  uncertain  in  predicting 
progress  than  those  either  below  or  above  this  figure,  and  naturally  so.  This 
represents  the  group  of  children  of  average  capacity,  but  with  whom  other 
factors,  such  as  health,  school  attendance,  industry,  and  various  environ- 
mental conditions  may  influence  progress,  usually  toward  retardation;  the 
chances  are  a  little  more  than  3  to  1  that  children  of  this  group  will  be 
retarded  rather  than  accelerated.  Here  in  the  L-l  grade  the  chances  for 
acceleration  were  10  out  of  100;  in  kindergarten  they  were  8  out  of  100. 

H-l  Grade  Children. 

Of  the  171  H-l  grade  children,  90  were  found  in  the  same  school  two 
years  later.    The  following  table  shows  their  progress: 

I.  Q.                                        Slow                            Normal                           Rapid  Total 

No.          %  No.         ',  No.          %  No.          % 

Below  90 44       86.3  6       11.8  1         1.9  51       56.6 

90-109                        16       48.5  12       36.3  5       15.2  33       36.7 

110  and  above 0         0.0  1       16.7  5       83.3  6         6.7 

Total .60     "66/7  19       21.1  11       12.2  90     100.0 

—  21  — 


This  group  of  90  H-l  grade  children  included  a  larger  number  of  pupils 
of  inferior  capacity  than  did  either  the  kindergarten  group  or  L-l  group. 
However,  the  same  general  conclusions  can  be  reached  which  have  already 
been  given  in  consideration  of  those  groups.  The  child  in  H-l  grade  with 
an  I.  Q.  below  90  had  86  chances  out  of  100  for  failure  of  regular  promotions 
in  the  next  two  years,  with  only  2  chances  out  of  100  for  rapid  promotion. 
On  the  other  hand,  the  child  with  an  I.  Q.  of  110  or  above  had  83  chances 
out  of  100  for  rapid  advancement  and  no  chance  of  failure.  The  very  fact 
that  this  group  as  a  whole  is  below  normal  in  capacity  tends  to  make  the 
superior  child  stand  out  by  way  of  contrast,  thus  bringing  him  in  line  more 
certainly  for  rapid  advancement. 

52  L-l  and  H-l  Grade  Cases. 

Additional  evidence,  corroborating  the  results  of  the  foregoing  studies 
covering  a  period  of  two  years,  comes  from  an  examination  of  52  L-l  and 
H-l  grade  cases,  which  were  followed  up  for  a  period  of  four  and  a  half  years. 
These  were  likewise  considered  with  reference  to  school  progress  in  its 
relation  to  I.  Q.  and  M.  A.,  as  determined  at  the  beginning  of  the  follow-up 
work.  The  table  below  gives  the  general  percentages  of  slow,  normal,  and 
rapid  progress  during  the  four  and  a  half  years,  figures  which,  while  coming 
from  a  group  limited  in  number,  are  nevertheless  significant  because  of  the 
longer  follow-up  period: 

I.  Q.  Slow  Norma]  Rapid  Total 

No.  %  No.         '  -  No.  ' ;  No.  ' ; 

Below  90 35       94.6  2         5.4  0         0.0  37       71.1 

90-109  6       50.0  6       50.0  0         0.0  12       23.1 

110  and  above 0         0.0  2       66.7  1       33.3  3         5.8 

Total 41       78.8  10       19.2  1         1.9  52     100.0 

Superior  children  are  almost  entirely  lacking  in  this  group;  however,  the 
very  heavy  percentage  of  retardation  for  pupils  testing  below  90,  and  the 
even  division  of  slow  and  normal  progress  for  those  testing  from  90  to  109 
give  added  authority  to  the  previous  figures  cited  for  kindergarten,  L-l,  and 
H-l  grade  pupils  who  were  followed  for  only  two  years. 

Comparison  of  Kindergarten,  L-l,  and  H-l  Grade  Tests  as  to  Relia- 
bility for  Prognosis. 

Further  comparison  of  the  tables  presented  for  kindergarten,  L-l,  and 
H-l  grades  points  to  the  conclusion  that  tests  made  in  the  kindergarten  are 
slightly  more  doubtful  in  predicting  school  progress  than  those  made  in  either 
L-l  or  H-l  grade.  The  following  comparative  table  gives  the  data  for  the 
three  grades  involved: 

—  22  — 


No.  '  Normal  Rapid 

%  ' ; 

I.  Q.  below  90—         Kgn 17  76.5  23.5  0.0 

L-l 31  87.1  12.9  0.0 

H-l 51  86.3  11.8  1.9 

Total 99  84.9  14.1  1.0 

I.  Q.  90-109—  Kgn 25  32.0  60.0  8.0 

L-l 49  36.7  53.1  10.2 

H-l 33  48.5  36.3  15.2 

Total 107  39.3  49.5  11.2 

I.  Q.  110  and  above— Kgn 34  8.8  58.8  32.4 

L-l 15  0.0  46.6  53.4 

H-l 6  0.0  16.7  83.3 

Total 55  5.4  50.9  43.7 

Note  from  the  above  table  the  following  facts: 

1.  The  percentage  of  slow  progress  for  children  testing  below  90  I.  Q. 
is  not  so  large  for  the  kindergarten  group  as  for  either  one  of  the  other  two. 

2.  Some  retardation  is  evident  for  kindergarten  children  testing  110  or 
above,  while  none  appears  for  children  of  similar  intelligence  in  the  L-l  or 
H-l  grade. 

3.  The  kindergarten  group  shows  fewer  of  its  superior  children  making 
rapid  progress  than  do  the  other  two  groups. 

4.  The  percentage  of  kindergarten  children  in  each  range  of  intelligence 
level  progressing  at  the  normal  rate  is  larger  than  is  found  in  the  L-l  or 
H-l  grade. 

5.  The  intelligence  test  made  in  the  kindergarten,  therefore,  appears  not 
to  differentiate  as  well  as  in  the  first  grade  with  reference  to  progress  to  be 
expected  for  the  next  two  years. 

General  Conclusions. 

General  conclusions  made  from  this  study  of  intelligence  quotients  can 
be  given  as  follows: 

1.  The  child  in  the  kindergarten  or  first  grade  with  an  I.  Q.  below  90 
has  little  chance  for  proceeding  at  the  regular  pace  under  present  standard 
conditions  of  teaching  and  curriculum  development. 

2.  The  child  with  an  I.  Q.  of  90  to  109  more  often  than  not  proceeds 
at  the  normal  rate,  but  with  definite  danger  of  retardation  under  adverse 
environmental  conditions. 

3.  The  child  with  an  I.  Q.  of  110  or  above  suffers  little  or  no  danger 
of  retardation  and  has  real  chance  for  acceleration  if  opportunity  is  provided. 

PROGNOSIS  ON  THE  BASIS  OF  MENTAL  AGE 

It  has  already  been  said  that  mental  age  is  the  most  important  single 
factor  in  determining  the  grade  in  which  a  child  can  work  satisfactorily;  we 

—  23  — 


At-age 

Ur 

ider 

-age 

Total 

No.            % 

No. 

% 

No. 

35         46.0 

10 

13.2 

76 

46         48.5 

18 

18.9 

95 

40         44.4 

38 

42.2 

90 

proceed  therefore  to  a  consideration  of  the  mental  ages  of  the  children  con- 
cerned in  relation  to  their  grade  placement. 

The  intelligence  quotient  of  the  child,  which  was  determined  in  the 
kindergarten,  L-l,  or  H-l  grade  and  which  remains  relatively  constant,  was 
used  as  a  basis  of  computation.  Since  the  follow-up  work  covered  two  years' 
time,  each  child  was  chronologically  two  years  older  at  the  end  of  the 
follow-up  period  than  at  the  time  when  the  test  was  made.  In  each  case  this 
chronological  age  of  the  child  at  the  close  of  follow-up  work  was  used  along 
with  his  intelligence  quotient  to  compute  his  mental  age  at  the  end  of  the 
follow-up  period;  the  following  formula  is  the  one  used  for  this  computation: 
I.  Q.  x  C.  A.  (at  end  of  follow-up  period)  =M.  A.  (at  end  of  follow-up 

period). 

The  child's  mental  age  thus  computed  was  compared  with  his  grade  location, 
and  he  was  rated  accordingly  as  mentally  over-age,  at-age,  or  under-age.* 
The  following  figures  show  the  conditions  two  years  after  the  test  was  given : 

—  Mentally  — 
Over-age 
Children  tested  in  No.  % 

Kindergarten  31         40.8 

L-l         31         32.6 

H-l  12         13.3 

A  comparison  of  the  figures  for  the  children  tested  in  each  of  the  three 
grades  shows  one  important  point  in  which  they  all  agree,  i.  e.,  that  from 
45%  to  50%  of  the  children  concerned,  two  years  after  being  tested,  were 
in  the  grade  in  which  their  mental  ages  would  place  them,  regardless  of 
chronological  age.  The  other  50%  (approximately)  were  divided  between 
the  mentally  over-age  and  under-age  groups  in  general  proportion  to  the 
number  of  inferior  and  superior  capacities  that  were  found  among  them.  In 
the  kindergarten  group  of  76  children,  where  45';  of  them  had  I.  Q.'s  of 
110  or  above,  40.8%  were  found  two  years  later  to  have  a  mental  age  above 
that  of  the  grade  in  which  they  were  working,  while  only  13.2%  were  men- 
tally under-age.  According  to  M.  A.,  then,  40';  of  these  kindergarten  chil- 
dren had  not  been  worked  up  to  capacity.  In  the  L-l  grade,  where  the 
number  of  superior  children  was  less  and  the  number  of  inferior  children 
greater,  there  was  a  corresponding  decrease  in  the  mentally  over-age  and 
an  increase  in  the  mentally  under-age  pupils  two  years  after  the  test  was 
given.  Finally,  in  the  H-l  grade,  in  which  there  was  a  predominance  of 
inferiority  (56.6%  having  an  I.  Q.  below  90),  there  appeared,  after  two  years' 
time,  mental  under-ageness  in  42.2%  of  the  group,  while  only  13.3%  were 
mentally  over-age.  Note  the  almost  exact  reversal  of  percentages  in  the 
mentally  over- age  and  under-age  groups  of  the  kindergarten  and  H-l  grades. 
The  situation  is  due  to  the  difference  existing  in  the  capacities  of  these  two 
groups  as  originally   tested.     Where   mental   superiority   exists  in   a  large 


*  The  following  table  indicates  the  ages  of  children  who  have  been  considered  mentally  "at-age"  for 
a  given  grade: 

Grade    Mental  Age  Grade  Mental  Age 

L-l:     5-9  to  6-9  H-3:  8-3   to     9-3 

H-l:     6-3  to  7-3  L-4:  8-9  to     9-9 

L-2:     6-9  to  7-9  H-4:  9-3  to   10-3 

H-2:      7-3   to  8-3  L-S:  9-9  to   10-9 

L-3:      7-9  to  8-9  H-5:  10-3  to   11-3 

—  24  — 


measure,  as  in  this  group  of  kindergarten  children,  and  insufficient  opportunity 
is  given  for  acceleration,  there  must  necessarily  develop  in  the  course  of  a 
few  years  a  large  amount  of  mental  over-ageness;  on  the  other  hand,  where 
inferiority  predominates,  as  in  the  H-l  group  concerned,  and  desperate  efforts 
are  made  by  the  teachers  to  pull  along  with  them  all  that  can  possibly  make 
any  progress  at  all,  particularly  those  who  are  chronologically  over-age, 
there  must  become  more  and  more  marked  the  percentage  of  the  mentally 
under-age  pupils,  who  do  not  possess  the  real  capacity  to  master  the  work 
of  the  grade  to  which  they  have  been  assigned.  It  is  significant  that  in  this 
H-l  grade  group,  where  the  largest  percentage  of  mental  under-ageness 
existed  two  years  after  the  test  was  given,  27  of  the  38  pupils  designated 
as  mentally  under-age  were  rated  by  the  teachers  as  inferior  or  very  inferior 
in  school  work.  Evidently  they  had  been  carried  along  because  of  their 
chronological  age  or  other  conditions,  despite  their  inability  to  do  the  standard 
work  of  the  grade.  In  the  kindergarten  group,  where  the  greatest  amount 
of  mental  over-ageness  was  found,  20  of  the  31  pupils  who  were  above  their 
grade  in  mental  age  were  rated  by  their  teachers  as  superior  or  very  superior 
in  school  work.  In  from  75%  to  80' V  of  the  cases  involved  in  each  group, 
the  mental  test  made  in  the  kindergarten,  L-l,  or  H-l  grade  has  made  a 
reliable  prediction  of  the  child's  school  progress  as  shown  two  years  later 
by  one  of  three  conditions: 

1.  Grade  location  in  agreement  with  M.  A. 

2.  Grade  location  above   mental   age  capacity,   with   resulting   marked 
inferiority  of  school  work. 

3.  Grade  location  below  mental  age  capacity,  with  accompanying  supe- 
riority of  school  work. 

52  L-l  and  H-l  Cases. 

Again  for  the  group  of  52  L-l  and  H-l  grade  children  who  were  followed 
for  four  and  a  half  years  of  school  progress,  similar  statements  can  be  made 
as  to  prediction  of  school  success  on  the  basis  of  careful  study  and  mental 
testing  in  the  first  grade.  Such  prediction  was  actually  made  for  each  indi- 
vidual case  at  the  time  of  testing,  with  the  following  results: 

1.  The  progress  made  by  the  child  (i.  e.,  slow,  normal,  or  rapid)  was 
predicted  correctly  in  77.8%  of  cases  studied. 

2.  Of  the  12  cases  where  disagreement  existed  between  prediction  and 
actual  progress,  all  but  2  can  be  explained  on  the  basis  of  absence,  illness, 
or  unsatisfactory  home  conditions. 

3.  In  a  total  of  50  cases,  or  96 %  of  the  whole  number,  therefore,  pre- 
dictions made  in  the  first  grade  of  progress  to  be  made  during  the  following 
four  years  either  were  realized  in  the  school  life  of  the  child  or  failed  of 
realization  through  some  known  factor  other  than  the  mental  capacity 
of  the  child. 

Correlation  Between  Mental  Age  and  School  Work. 

That  a  general  relationship  exists  between  a  child's  mental  age  and  his 
school  success  is  evident  from  the  foregoing  considerations.    An  actual  figure 

—  25  — 


of  correlation  was  worked  out,  however,  for  149  first  grade  children.  Pre- 
vious to  the  test  they  were  rated  by  their  teachers  as  to  the  quality  of  their 
school  accomplishment  according  to  the  following  scale: 

A=Very  superior  school  work 
B=Superior  school  work 
C=Average  school  work 
D=Inferior  school  work 
E=Very  inferior  school  work 

The  figures  below  show  that  the  relationship  between  the  mental  age  of 
a  first  grade  child  and  the  quality  of  his  school  work  as  judged  by  his  teachers 
is  a  very  definite  one.  The  coefficient  of  correlation  is  +.725  (Pearson). 
Of  the  57  children  who  tested  below  six  years  mentally,  as  shown  in  the  table 
below,  44  were  doing  inferior  work,  whereas  70  of  the  92  children  who  tested 
six  years  or  above  were  rated  as  average  or  better.  In  short,  there  is  again 
a  clear  indication  that  children  who  are  below  six  years  in  mentality  find  it 
very  difficult  to  do  work  that  is  satisfactory  in  the  first  grade,  and  are  more 
likely  to  do  inferior  or  very  inferior  work.  Thus  they  are  beginning  their 
school  experience  with  a  serious  handicap,  which  pursues  them  throughout 
the  grades,  often  until  such  time  as  they  can  by  any  means  whatever  escape 
the  bondage  of  lessons  beyond  their  ability  by  dropping  out  of  school. 

Showing  Correlation  Between  M.  A.  and  Quality  of  School  Work 
for  149  First  Grade  Children. 

Mental  Age  Quality  of  School  Work 

ED  C  B  A  Total 

9-6  and  up 3  3 

9-0   to  9-5  

8-6  to   8-11.. 112 

8-0  to  8-5  1  12                    4 

7-6  to   7-11 5  1                                       6 

7-0  to  7-5 6  10                 7                 3                 26 

6-6  to  6-11 9  18                 3                                   30 

6-0  to  6-5  6  14                  1                                    21 

5-6  to  5-11 3  7  7                                                       17 

5-0  to   5-5  4  6  4                                                       14 

4-6  to  4-11 8  7  2                                                       17 

to  4-5    7  2  9 

Total 22  44  60  14  9  149 

Correlation  .725  (Pearson). 

Note. — Read  the  table  thus:  The  3  children  testing  mentally  9-6  or  above  were  rated  very  superior 
(A)  in  school  work;  of  those  testing  below  4-6,  7  were  rated  very  inferior  (E),  and  2  were  rated  inferior 
(D)   in  school  work. 

Disagreements  Between  Test  Results  and  School  Success. 

Of  the  combined  numbers  of  L-l  and  H-l  grade  children  considered  thus 
far,  756  were  used  as  the  basis  for  studying  the  total  percentages  of  agree- 
ments and  disagreements  between  test  results  and  general  school  success  as 
indicated  by  the  progress  made  and  marks  earned  in  the  first  grade. 

The  basis  for  determining  agreement  or  disagreement  was  the  I.  Q.  in 
its  relation  to  age,  school  progress,  and  quality  of  school  work.  The  following 
shows  the  conditions  expected  from  children  testing  at  different  levels  and 
which  were  taken  as  standards  by  which  to  judge  each  child's  school  record: 

—  26  — 


I.  Q.  below  90:  Slow  progress,   over-ageness,   or   unsatisfactory* 

school  work. 
I.  Q.  90-109:  Normal  progress  and  satisfactory*  school  work. 

I.  Q.   110  or  above:      Rapid  progress  or  superior*  school  work. 

The  following  figures  show  the  numbers  and  percentages  of  agreements 
and  disagreements  between  test  results  and  progress  of  the  756  pupils 
concerned : 

No. 

Agreements  650  86.0 

Disagreements   explained 72  9.5 

Disagreements  not  explained 26  3.4 

Follow-up  data  not  available 8  1.1 

Total '. 756  100.0 

The  significant  point  of  this  analysis  lies  in  the  fact  that  out  of  756 
children  tested  there  was  actual  unexplained  disagreement  in  only  26  cases, 
or  3.4%  of  the  whole  number.  Let  us  study  next  the  causes  of  the  disagree- 
ments that  were  explained  by  the  teachers.  For  this  purpose  two  divisions 
have  been  made:  (1)  those  children  doing  poorer  work  than  would  be 
expected  from  test  results;  (2)  those  children  doing  better  work  than  would 
be  expected  from  test  results.     The  following  table  shows  this  analysis: 

Analysis  of  Teachers'  Explanations  of  Disagreements 

( 1 )  Children  doing  poorer  work  than  expected —  No.  ' ,' 

Lack  of  application 20  36.4 

Absence  (whatever  cause) 11  20.0 

Sickness  or  bad  physical  condition 7  13.0 

Lack  of  power  to  concentrate 4  7.2 

Home  conditions  poor 3  5.4 

Defective  hearing 1  1.8 

Slow  2  3.6 

Retiring  or  oversensitive 3  5.4 

Repeated  at  request  of  parent 1  1.8 

Language  difficulty 1  1.8 

Chronological  age  wrong ._  1  1.8 

Immature l  1.8 

Total 55  100.0 

(2)  Children  doing  better  work  than  expected — 

Excellent  application  and  attendance.... 9  52.9 

Language  difficulty  vitiates  test 3  17.6 

Promoted  because  of  being  over-age 3  17.6 

Chronological  age  wrong 1  5.9 

fMechanically  minded 1  5.9 

Total 17  99.9 

Total  number  explained  disagreements  =  72. 

*  Quality  of  school   work  war  determined  from   teacher.-'     rating;     made    according     to     5-point     scale 
given  on  page  26.     D  or  E  represents  unsatisfactory  work:   A  or  B  superior;    ('  or  above,   satisfactory, 
t  Just  w-hat  teachers  meant  is  not  clear  in  all  cases.      I   include   them   as  given. 

—  27  — 


A  glance  at  the  above  table  will  indicate  the  importance  of  application 
and  industry  as  factors  in  school  success;  ''lack  of  application"  (36.4$  ), 
"excellent  application"  (52.9$  )  explain  a  very  large  percentage  of  the  dis- 
agreements between  school  progress  and  test  results. — Among  those  pupils 
doing  poorer  work  than  was  expected  two  explanations,  i.  e.,  "lack  of  appli- 
cation" and  "absence"  account  for  more  than  half  the  cases;  "bad  physical 
condition"  accounts  for  13.0%  more.  In  the  group  that  makes  better  prog- 
ress than  was  expected,  52.9%  did  so  by  •excellent  application."  Many  of 
the  other  disagreements  are  really  not  disagreements  at  all;  for  where  a 
chronological  age  is  given  incorrectly  at  the  time  of  the  test,  or  where  a 
child  is  promoted  because  of  being  over-age  regardless  of  his  mental  capacity, 
one  can  not  consider  that  the  value  of  the  test  has  been  vitiated.  In  sum- 
marizing conditions,  it  can  be  said  that  72%  of  all  disagreements  occurring 
were  explained  by  a  personal  follow-up  or  investigation  of  the  individuals 
concerning  whom  the  disagreement  occurred.  This  brings  the  combined 
percentages  of  agreements  or  explained  disagreements  up  to  the  95%  mark, 
i.  e.,  722  out  of  756  cases.  This  certainly  is  conclusive  evidence  of  the 
value  of  mental  tests  in  analyzing  a  child's  school  ability  and  in  predicting 
his  school  progress. 


SECTION  3. 


GRADE  LOCATION,  AS  RELATED  TO  MENTAL  AGE  AND 
CHRONOLOGICAL   AGE 

The  follow-up  work  carried  on  for  several  years  in  three  of  the  groups 
studied  has  made  it  possible  to  make  a  comparison  between  the  chronological 
age  and  mental  age  two  years  after  the  test  was  made  with  reference  to  grade 
location.  In  each  case  the  mental  age  at  the  end  of  the  two-year  follow-up 
was  computed  as  indicated  on  page  24.  At  this  time  the  children  concerned 
(kindergarten,  L-l,  and  H-l)  would  be  in  the  H-2,  L-3,  or  H-3  grade,  respec- 
tively, if  they  progressed  normally  at  the  rate  of  one-half  grade  per  term; 
repetition  of  a  grade  or  acceleration  at  any  time  would  definitely  influence 
the  general  relationship  of  grade  location  to  C.  A.  and  M.  A.  at  the  close 
of  the  two  years. 

The  following  table  gives  the  summary  of  conditions  as  they  were  found 
for  each  group  studied: 

—  28  — 


Mental  Age  vs.  Chronological  Age. 

Kan.  L-l  H-l 

M-    *•                             C.    \.                                                                                           Group  Total 

Mo.         %  No.         %             No.  No. 

At-age 20       26.3  21       22.1         11       12.2  52       19.9 

1.  At-age              Over-age 8       10.5  20       21.1         25       27.8  53       20.3 

Under-age....  7         9.2  5         5.3  4  16         6.1 

Total 35       46.0         46       48.5         40       44.4       121       46.3 

At-age 18       23.7         11       11.6  4         4.4         33       12.6 

2.  Over-age  Over-age 9       11.8         16       16.8  8         8.9         33       12.6 

Under-age....  4         5.3  4         4.2  0         0.0  8         3.1 

Total 31       40.8         31       32.6         12       13.3         74       28.3 

At-age 1         1.3  6         6.3  7         7.8         11         5.3 

3.  Under-age       Over-age 9       11.9  9         9.4         28       31.1         46       17.6 

Under-age....  0         0.0  3         3.2  3         3.3  6         2.5 

Total 10       13.2      ■   18       18.9         38       42.2         66       25.4 

Final  totals 76       29.1         95       36.4         90       34.5       261     100.0 

Note.— Read  the  table  thus:  In  the  kindergarten  group  of  76  children,  35  were  mentally  at  age 
31   were  mentally  over-age,  and    10   were   mentally   under-age   for  the   grade  in    which    they     . 

ars  after  the  test.     Of  the  35  who  were  mentally  at  age  for  the  grade,  20  wen-  al  so  <  horonologically 
at  age  for  the  grade,  8  were  chronologically  over-age,  and   7  were  chronoli  etc. 

An  analysis  of  the  preceding  table  leads  to  the  following  conclusions  that 
merit  special  thought: 

1.  In  the  second  and  third  grades,  after  two  years'  follow-up,  46.3  rf  of 
these  children  are  working  in  the  class  where  their  mental  ages  would  place 
them.  The  rest  are  either  attempting  to  do  work  which  is  beyond  their 
capacity  or  are  mentally  capable  of  being  accelerated  beyond  the  class  in 
which  they  are  actually  placed.     (See  sec.  1  of  the  table.) 

2.  Seventeen  and  six-tenths  per  cent  of  the  entire  number  of  pupils 
studied  in  the  three  grades  concerned  have  been  pushed  on  because  of  chrono- 
logical over-ageness  of  from  one  to  four  years,  even  though  mental  capacity 
has  not  reached  that  required  for  the  grade  in  which  they  are  placed.  An 
additional  7.8%,  while  being  at-age  or  even  under-age  chronologically,  are 
still  under-age  in  mentality,  and  have  reached  the  grade  in  which  they  are 
working  not  by  virtue  of  inherent  capacity,  but  through  any  one  or  more  of 
the  following  factors:  age,  hard  application,  excessive  help,  personality,  social 
status.     (See  sec.  3  of  the  table.) 

3.  Twenty-eight  and  three-tenths  per  cent  of  the  whole  number  have  not 
been  given  the  opportunity  to  reach  in  school  placement  the  level  of  their 
intellectual  capacity.  Chronologically  most  of  them  are  either  at-age  or 
over-age,  but  mentally  they  are  equal  to  an  acceleration  bringing  them  nearer 
to  the  utilization  of  complete  mental  power.  Particularly  in  need  of  attention 
are  those  children  (12.6'r  )  who  are  over-age  both  chronologically  and  men- 
tally,— a  fact  which  indicates  that  they  have  been  retarded,  not  through 
lack  of  capacity,  but  because  of  absence,  ill  health,  or  other  environmental 
condition,  even  though  ability  is  equal  to  normal  progress  or  better.  This 
is  one  of  our  most  serious  types  of  maladjustment,  every  occurrence  of  which 

—  29  — 


should  be  studied  carefully  with  a  view  to  proper  placement,  and  the  conse- 
quent elimination  of  all  retardation  which  is  not  due  to  mental  inferiority. 
(See  sec.  2  of  the  table.) 

4.  Fifty  and  five-tenths  per  cent  of  the  entire  number  of  children  con- 
sidered are  chronologically  over-age;  in  3  7.9  %  of  the  cases  the  condition 
is  due  to  lack  of  capacity;  in  the  other  12.6%  it  has  been  caused  through 
other  environmental  conditions. 


SECTION  4. 


RELIABILITY  OF  THE  INDIVIDUAL  TEST  AS  SHOWN  BY  RETESTS  OF 

THE  SAME   CHILD 

Evidence  thus  far  presented  has  emphasized  the  mental  age  as  the  most 
important  single  criterion  in  determining  the  grade  location  of  a  child  in 
school.  Such  mental  age  has  been  determined  by  means  of  an  individual 
intelligence  test.  That  the  results  of  the  test  are  reliable  is  shown  by  the 
close  correlation  found  to  exist  between  mental  age  and  school  success. 

A  further  step  in  our  investigation  lies  in  a  study  of  the  reliability  of  the 
test  as  shown  by  the  results  accruing  from  two  tests  given  at  different  times 
to  the  same  child.  To  what  extent  do  the  intelligence  quotients  found  in 
the  two  different  tests  agree?  Two  hundred  and  eighty-eight  pairs  of  test 
blanks  (each  pair  of  two  tests  having  been  given  at  different  times  to  the 
same  child),  made  by  a  group  of  84  different  examiners,  have  formed  the 
basis  for  investigation  of  this  important  question.  An  analysis  of  the  cases 
studied  follows: 

Age — Range  at  time  of  first  test  =  4  years  to  16  years;  83','  of  the  children 
concerned  were  less  than  10  years  of  age  at  the  time  of  the  first  test. 

Intelligence — Range  of  I.  Q.  in  first  test  =  33  to  136.    Range  of  I.  Q.  in 
second  test  =  33  to  140.    Median  I.  Q.  of  each  complete  set  of  tests=86. 

Interval  of  Time — Range  =  less  than  1  month  to  3  years.    Median  interval 
of  time  =13.0  months. 

Examiners  Giving  the  Tests: 

A  system  of  training  is  in  current  use  in  this  city  whereby  certification  for 
mental  testing  is  granted  a  teacher  in  the  department  after  (1)  a  lecture 
and  discussion  course  in  mental  testing  has  been  completed;  (2)  a  sufficient 
number  of  tests  have  been  submitted  for  correction  to  insure  the  examiner's 
familiarity  with  the  technique  of  recording  and  scoring  responses;  (3)  ob- 
servation of  a  test  given  by  the  candidate  for  certification  has  indicated 
accurate  knowledge  of  the  formulae  involved  as  well  as  ability  to  come  into 
satisfactory  rapport  with  the  child. 

Under  such  a  system  of  training  it  is  inevitable  that  numerous  test  blanks 
should  find  their  way  into  the  files  at  the  central  office  which  represent  work 
done  at  a  very  early  stage  of  the  examiner's  experience  in  the  actual  giving 

—  30  — 


of  tests.  In  these  cases  indication  is  always  made  on  the  blank  accordingly, 
as  a  caution  against  relying  too  much  upon  its  accuracy.  All  such  tests, 
however,  were  included  in  the  study  of  retests,  with  the  result  that  in  50'  '< 
of  the  cases  either  one  or  both  of  the  examinations  involving  the  same  child 
were  made  by  an  examiner  who  was  still  under  training,  whether  in  its  early 
stages  or  shortly  before  certification.  Without  exception,  however,  the  lecture 
and  discussion  course  in  mental  testing  had  been  completed  or  almost  com- 
pleted before  actual  testing  was  begun. 

A  detailed  study  of  the  288  pairs  of  tests  involved  reveals  the  following 
general  facts: 

1.  Coefficient  of  correlation   (Pearson) =       .90* 

2.  Median  difference  in  I.  Q =     5.1  pts. 

3.  Average  difference  in  I.  Q .=     5.6     " 

4.  Central  tendency  of  change =+0.5     "  f 

5.  Middle  50r;  of  changes =  —  5.6     "  to  +4.4  pts.t 

6.  Distribution  according  to  number  of  points  difference  in  I.  Q.: 

No.  pts.  difference  ' ,  Tests 

°~    5  53'8     Us  2 

6—10  34.4     J  b5-z 

11  —  15  5.8    ) 

16  —  20  3.9    V  11.8 

More,  than  20  2.1    ) 

It  will  be  noticed  that  only  in  11.8%  of  the  288  cases  does  the  difference 
in  I.  Q.  exceed  10  pts.i  The  central  tendency  of  change  in  the  I.  Q.  from 
the  first  to  the  second  test  result  is  only  one-half  of  a  point  above  the  zero 
line  (+0.5),  with  a  middle  50%  range  of  all  differences  extending  from 
—  5.6  to  +  4.4.  Considering  the  whole  number  of  tests,  there  seems  to 
be  no  indication  therefore  that  the  result  of  the  second  test  is  apt  to  be 
higher  or  lower  than  that  of  the  first. 

Analysis  of  Cases  Differing  by  More  Than  10  Points. 

Thirty-four  cases,  or  11.8%  of  the  whole  number  of  tests  studied,  show 
a  difference  in  the  I.  Q.  of  the  first  and  second  tests  of  more  than  10  points. 
The  largest  positive  difference  is  25,  and  the  largest  negative  change  is  19, 
with  a  median  of  14.5  points  difference  in  the  whole  series  of  34  tests.  Several 
questions  are  important  in  analyzing  this  group;   i.  e.: 

*  cf.  also  findings  of  other  investigators,  given  in  J.  Eel.   Psych.,  Sept.,    1921,  as  follows: 
Stenquist                      .72    (274  cases)  Guneo  &  Terman     .85   (31  ca 

Rugg    &    Colloton     .S4   (137  om^i  .94   (21   cas 

Terman  .93   (43S  cases)  .95   (25  ca 

t  Ev   "central   tendency  of  change"   is  meant  th-=    median    difference    between    first    and    second    test 
results  found  from  a  complete  distribution  ranging  from   the  highest   positive  difference   (i.   e.,   the  : 
increase  found  in  the  second   test  result)  to  the  highest   negative  difference   (i.   <•.,   the  greatest    di 
found  in  the  second  test  result).     This  median  or  central  tendency  was  -)-0.5  point.     The  middle  50%  of 
changes,  or  inter-quartile  range,  in  this  same  distribution  extended   from   5.6  points  below  0  to  4.4  points 
above' 0.      (See  graph  on  pag  32,  showing  distribution.) 

t  cf.  also  J.   Ed.   Psych.,  Sept.,   1921,  in  which  ing     findings    are    noted    of    percentage    of 

differences  exceeding    10: 

Rugg  &  Colloton 12.0%   (137  ca 

Garrison  b.Q'7,    (   62  ca 

Terman   15.0%   (435  cases) 

—  31  — 


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+ 


«4H     O 


o  o 


CD 


«>l  s& 

c      aw 

»  "  Jl  4 

o  CSW  a; 
>>  o  o  C 

u~  as  oj 


X  oo 
X 


sasBO  -o^ 
—  32  — 


6  te 


1.  Do  these  large  differences  occur  more  frequently  in   any  one  age 
group  than  in  another? 

2.  To  what  extent  does  a  language  difficulty  appear  to  have  any  influ- 
ence on  the  result  of  the  first  test? 

3.  Does  the  group  include  any  psychopathic  cases? 

4.  Did  both  tests  fully  explore  the  child's  mentality? 

5.  Is  there  any  relation  between  large  differences  in  I.  Q.  and  the  time 
interval  between  tests? 

6.  Did  both  examiners  have  a  fair  amount  of  experience? 

Data  indicating  answers  to  these  questions  are  compiled  in   the  table 
below: 

Analysis  of  34  Cases  Showing  Difference  Between  First  and  Second 
Tests  of  More  Than  10  Points. 

4yrs.  to  6  7  yrs.  to  9  lOyrs. 

yrs.  11  mos.       yrs.  11  mos.         or  more  (288 

(129  cases)        (110  cases)        (49  cases)  cases) 

Foreign  language  difficulty 13  4                    0  17 

1  or  both  tests  not  complete 2  2                    2  6 

Psychopathic  cases 3  0                    0  3 

No  apparent  cause  for  disagreement 5  12  8 

Total 23  7  4  34 

Range  of  time  interval  =  4  mos.  to  33  mos. 
Median  time  interval  =  13.5  mos. 


Examiners  \  Both  certificated     :     13  cases 

I  1  or  both  not  certificated      :     21  cases 


Note  that  23  of  the  34  cases  analyzed  above  occur  in  the  youngest  age 
group  (4  yrs.  to  6  yrs.  11  mos.);  moreover,  13  of  these  were  designated  by 
the  examiners  as  showing  a  distinct  language  difficulty  when  the  first  test 
was  given  at  the  time  of  entering  school,  and  thus  were  not  able  to  reveal 
the  full  extent  of  their  mentality  until  they  had  received  definite  help  in 
thought  expression  in  English  through  school  experience.  However,  in  the 
same  age  group  (considering  the  total  number  of  129  cases  ranging  from 
4  yrs.  to  6  yrs.  11  mos.)  are  included  30  children  who  likewise  came  from 
foreign  homes  with  a  distinct  foreign  influence,  but  who,  by  the  time  the 
first  mental  test  was  given,  had  had  contact  with  English  speaking  children 
outside  of  their  own  homes  sufficient  to  eliminate  the  language  difficulty. 
In  these  cases  the  two  tests  made  of  the  same  child  show  a  difference  of  not 
more  than  9  points  with  a  median  change  of  5.0.  The  indications  are,  there- 
fore, that  in  13  cases  out  of  34  (38.2%)  the  large  discrepancy  between  two 
test  results  was  definitely  due  to  a  lack  of  ability  to  understand  or  to  speak 
the  language  in  which  the  test  was  given.  Hence  the  factor  of  language 
difficulty  should  be  taken  into  consideration  in  those  schools  where  this 
condition  is  frequently  encountered  when  children  enter  the  kindergarten 
or  first  grade.  In  a  cosmopolitan  community,  however,  it  is  not  of  sufficiently 
serious  import  to  lessen  the  value  of  a  general  program  of  mental  testing. 

Further  significance  may  be  attached  to  the  fact  that  of  the  34  cases 
showing  large  discrepancies,  21  involve  tests  of  which  one  or  both  were  made 
by  examiners  in  the  early  stages  of  their  experience  previous  to  certification, 
and  hence  can  not  be  credited  with  unquestioned  accuracy.  The  coupling 
of  this  fact  with  the  other  considerations  of  psychopathic  conditions,  failure 

—  33  — 


to  explore  fully  the  child's  mentality  (see  table  on  page  33)  as  well  as  that 
of  language  difficulty  already  discussed  is  clearly  indicative  of  the  reasons 
for  the  existence  of  these  34  cases.  Out  of  a  total  of  288  retests,  only  8 
(2.7%  of  the  whole  group)  show  a  disagreement  of  more  than  10  points 
without  apparent  cause  for  the  discrepancy.  The  high  correlation  (.90) 
existing  in  the  complete  series,  as  well  as  the  comparatively  small  median 
difference  (5.0  points)  found  between  first  and  second  tests,  serves  to  insure 
a  high  degree  of  reliability  for  the  test  itself,  and  to  increase  confidence  in 
its  use. 


SECTION  5. 


RELIABILITY  OF  GROUP  MENTAL  TESTS 

Evidence  has  been  established  that  the  individual  mental  test  is  an  instru- 
ment of  great  reliability  in  determining  the  grade  in  which  a  child  can  do 
satisfactory  school  work.  The  time  needed  for  its  administration,  however, 
is  a  factor  which  makes  its  exclusive  use  for  this  purpose  impractical.  Group 
mental  tests,  which  make  possible  the  examination  of  a  whole  class  at  once, 
have  accordingly  come  into  current  use  as  a  means  for  school  classification 
on  the  basis  of  capacity.  The  question  immediately  arises:  How  does  the 
group  intelligence  test  compare  with  the  individual  test  in  reliability  for 
purposes  of  segregation  and  prediction  of  school  success?  It  is  self-evident 
that  external  factors  such  as  indisposition,  nervousness,  and  opportunities  for 
momentary  distraction  cannot  be  so  easily  controlled  when  dealing  imperson- 
ally with  a  group  of  50  people  as  is  possible  with  a  single  individual;  and 
insofar  as  any  one  pupil  in  the  group  of  50  is  affected  by  any  one  of  these 
factors,  just  so  far  is  the  group  test  unreliable  for  that  particular  child.  A 
group  mental  test  is  essentially  what  its  name  implies;  i.  e..  an  instrument 
for  measuring  the  capacity  of  a  group  of  people  taken  as  a  whole.  Due 
caution  is  necessary  in  the  interpretation  of  the  results  gained  by  any  single 
individual  within  the  group.  Such  caution  may  be  observed  through  checking 
up  the  test  results  with  the  teacher's  estimate  of  the  child's  school  work,  as 
well  as  of  his  capacity  and  application;  his  school  classification  should  come 
only  as  the  result  of  the  composite  rating  thus  obtained. 

With  due  consideration  of  such  possible  individual  exceptions  where 
external  factors  have  vitiated  test  results,  continued  usage  of  the  group  mental 
test  has  proven  it  to  be  on  the  whole  a  very  satisfactory  basis  for  estimating 
pupil  capacity.  Close  relationships  exist  ( 1)  between  test  scores  and  teachers'' 
estimates  of  school  work  at  the  time  of  taking  the  test;  and  (2)  between 
test  scores  and  actual  accomplishment  in  school  work  during  the  year  follow- 
ing the  test.    Both  these  relationships  are  shown  in  the  following  pages. 

Relationship  Between  Group  Test  Score  and  Quality  of  School  Work 

Army  Alpha  Test. — The  Army  Alpha  test  was  given  to  a  H-8  grade 
class  of  1097  pupils.  Before  the  test,  each  pupil  was  rated  by  his  teachers 
on  the  7-point*  scale  as  to  the  quality  of  school  work.     Results  proved  the 


*A      =  Very  Superior 

C— 

-  =  Slightly   Below   Average 

B       =  Superior 

D 

=  Inferior 

C-f-  =  Slightly  Above  Average 

E 

=  Very  Infe 

C      =  Average 

34  — 


direct  relationship  which  existed  between  the  test  scores  and  the  kind  of  work 
children  do  in  school.  The  following  table  gives  the  median  scores  for  the 
children  doing  the  various  types  of  school  work  as  rated  by  the  teachers: 

Ratirg  in  Median  Alpha  No.  oi 

School  Work  Score  Pupils 

A  (Very  Superior) 115  16 

B  (Superior) 96  121 

C+  (Slightly  above  average) 85  261 

C  (Average)  75  348 

C—  (Slightly  below  average) 69  240 

D  (Inferior)   60  92 

E  (Very  inferior) 52  19 


B 

c+ 

c 

c— 

l) 

E 

rc 

% 

% 

% 

% 

% 

!5.0 

39.0 

22.0 

6.0 

1.0 

0.0 

All  children 76  1097 

Note. — Read  the  table  thus:  the  16  pupils  who  were  rated  by  their  teachers  as  very  superior  in 
school  work  made  a  median  score  of  115  on  the  Army  Alpha  test;  the  121  children  who  were  rated  supe- 
rior made  a  median   score  of  96,  etc. 

The  figures  in  the  above  table  show  that  the  lower  ratings  in  school  work 
are  accompanied  consistently  by  increasingly  inferior  test  scores;  it  appears, 
therefore,  that  the  type  of  work  to  be  expected  from  a  group  of  children  can 
be  determined  to  a  large  extent  on  the  basis  of  the  Alpha  score. 

Otis  Test. — The  Otis  Group  Intelligence  test*  was  given  to  849  H-8 
grade  pupils.  Teachers'  ratings  of  school  work  were  again  compared  with 
the  test  scores,  with  the  following  results: 

Otis  Score  and  Rating  in  School  Work 

No.  Chil- 
Group  Test  Rating  dren        A 

Superior  % 
100  and  above  (abbre- 
viated Otis  test) 228     7.0 

Average 
70-99      (abbreviated 
Otis  test) 391     1.0        11.0        24.0        43.7        17.0  3.0        0.3 

Inferior 
Below  70  (abbreviated 
Otis  test) 230     0.0  1.0        14.0        32.0        28.0        20.0        5.0 

Total . 849 

Note. — Read  the  table  thus:  of  the  children  who  made  a  superior  score**  (above  100)  on  the  Otis 
test,  7.0%  were  rated  A  (very  superior)  in  school  work;  25.0%  were  rated  B  (superior)  in  school 
work,   etc. 

A  brief  study  of  the  percentages  given  in  the  preceding  table  brings  out 
the  following  facts: 

1.  None  of  the  228  children  in  the  superior  group  (above  100  in  Otis 
test)  do  very  inferior  work,  and  only  1.0' r   do  inferior  work. 

2.  None  of  the  230  children  in  the  inferior  group  (below  70  in  Otis 
test)  do  very  superior  work  and  only  LOT  do  superior  work. 

3.  Of  the  mentally  superior  group,  only  7.0' r  are  rated  C — ,  D,  or  E 
(i.  e.,  below  average)  in  school  work,  while  in  the  mentally  inferior  group 
53.0%  do  work  that  is  rated  below  average. 


*  An  abbreviated  edition  of  the  Otis  Group  test  was  used,  including  tests  2,  3,  4,  5,  7,  and  8  of  the 
series  as  published  by  the  World  Book  Co. 

**  Of  the  849  cases  27%  scored  100  or  above;   46%,  70  to  99  inclusive;    27';,  below   70. 

—  35  — 


4.  Of  the  mentally  superior  group,  71.0%  do  work  that  is  rated  A,  B, 
or  C-\-  (i.  e.,  above  average),  while  in  the  inferior  group  only  15.0%  do 
work  that  is  above  average. 

It  is  apparent  from  these  percentages  that  the  score  made  by  a  child  in 
the  Otis  test  bears  a  very  definite  relationship  to  the  kind  of  school  work  he 
does.  A  pupil  who  scores  high  in  only  1  case  out  of  100  does  inferior  school 
work,  while  a  pupil  who  scores  low  has  only  1  chance  out  of  100  to  do  superior 
school  work. 

Terman  Group  Test. — The  Terman  Group  Test  of  Mental  Ability 
was  given  to  a  group  of  262  H-9  grade  students  preparatory  to  their  entering 
the  tenth  grade  of  the  Senior  High  School.  On  the  basis  of  the  test  score,  a 
Group  Intelligence  Quotient  (G.  I.  Q.)*  was  computed  for  each  child,  and 
a  study  followed  of  the  relationship  of  this  G.  I.  Q.  to  the  amount  and  quality 
of  credit  with  which  the  child  entered  the  Senior  High  School.  The  results 
of  such  study  are  given  in  the  table  below: 

Av.  no.  unitef  , Quality  of  Entrance N 

presented  for  Credit 

Mental  Rating  Ac-  No.  Senior  High  %  of  %  of  '"of 

cording  to  G.  I.  Q.  pupils        School  entrance  l's  2's  3's 

A     (130  or  above) 13  4.9  44.4  48.6  4.5 

B     (115-129)    60  4.8  31.0  53.9  15.1 

C+ (105-114)    63  4.6  18.8  50.8  30.4 

C     (95-104)    67  4.3  12.4  52.1  35.4 

C— (85-94)     41  4.0  9.5  49.3  41.2 

D     (70-84)    18  3.3  4.9  24.7  70.4 

E     (69  or  below) 0 

Xote. — Read  the  table  thus:  for  the  13  pupils  who,    acconi:  the    Terman    Group    test,    had    a 

G.  I.  Q.  of  130  or  above,  the  average  number  of  unitsf   earned   during   the   ninth   year  was   4.9;    of   the 
total  number  of  credits  earned  by  these  pupils  44.4%  were  given  the  school  mark  of  "1"   (Excellent;, 

48.6%  were  marked  "2"  (Satisfactory);   4.5%  were  marked  "3"  (Passed). 

Several  outstanding  facts  in  this  table  are  significant: 

1.  The  average  number  of  units  presented  for  high  school  entrance 
steadily  decreases  as  the  G.  I.  Q.  decreases.  It  is  evident  that  the  pupils 
who  made  the  inferior  test  scores  were  not  able  to  accomplish  as  much  in 
the  ninth  grade  as  those  with  the  higher  scores. 

2.  The  percentage  of  "l's"  in  school  work  decreases  from  44.4%  for 
the  mentally  very  superior  group  to  4.9%  for  the  mentally  inferior  group. 
Clearly  those  who  make  low  tests  scores  are  not  succeeding  in  doing  excellent 
school  work. 

3.  Seventy  and  four- tenths  per  cent  of  the  marks  earned  by  the  group 
testing  D  in  capacity  were  barely  of  passing  grade,  while  only  4.5%  were 
of  this  type  for  the  group  testing  A  in  capacity. 

4.  The  general  findings  indicate  that  the  higher  a  child's  test  score,  the 
higher  the  quality  of  his  school  work,  and  vice  versa. 

*A  Group  Intelligence  Quotient  (G.  I.  Q.)  is  computed  on  the  basis  of  mental  age  equivalent-:  for 
group  test  scores,  as  determined  by  standardized  procedure.  The  G.  I.  Q.  is  onlv  approximate,  however, 
and  not  so  reliable  as  the  I.  Q.  obtained  by  an  individual  mental  test. 

t  Each  unit  represents  the  completion  of  a  year';   work   in   a    given   subject. 

—  36  — 


Relation  Between  Test  Score  and  Subsequent  School  Work. 

This  same  class  of  262  ninth  grade  pupils  were  followed  into  their  tenth 
grade  work.  Two  factors  were  considered:  (1)  the  type  of  course  taken 
in  the  Senior  High  School;  (2)  the  quality  of  the  Senior  High  School  work 
during  the  first  seven  weeks  of  the  term.    The  findings  are  given  below: 

(1)  Type  of  course  taken  in  the  Senior  High  School. 

Academic  Commercial  Vocational 

Mental  Rating  Ac-  No.  No.  '',  No.  No. 

cording  to  G.  I.  Q.  pupil;         pupils  pupils  pupils  pupils         pupils  pupils 

A     (130  or  above) 13  13  100.0  0  0.0  0  0.0 

B     (115-129)   60  57  95.0  2  3.3  1  1.7 

C+U05-114)    63  55  87.3  7  11.1  1  1.6 

C     (95-104)   67  46  68.6  18  26.9  3  4.5 

C- (85-94)    41  25  61.0  11  26.8  5  12.2 

D     (70-84)   18  12  66.7  6  33.3  0  0.0 

E     (Below  70)  0  

(2)  Quality  of  Senior  High  School  work  during  first  period  of  7  weeks. 

Mental  Rating  Ac-  No.  %  of  %  of  %  of 

cording  to  G.  I.  Q.  pupils  IV  3's«  4's,  S's  or  Inc.* 

A     (130  or  above) 13  24.5  54.4  10.5  10.4 

B     (115-129)    60  10.9  55.9  23.1  10.0 

C+ (105-114)     63  8.7  34.2  37.4  19.4 

C     (95-104)    67  2.8  38.9  36.5  21.6 

C— (85-94)     41  7.5  38.0  39.0  15.4 

D     (70-84)    18  0.0  32.8  43.2  23.7 

E     (Below  70)  0 

The  above  tables  show  two  definite  tendencies:  (1)  that  the  pupils 
having  high  mental  ratings  almost  universally  enroll  in  the  academic  course, 
while  pupils  having  low  ratings  tend  more  often  to  take  up  the  commercial 
and  vocational  work;  (2)  that  the  percentage  of  excellent  marks  received  in 
the  tenth  grade  very  rapidly  diminishes  with  the  decrease  of  the  G.  I.  Q. 
rating  as  determined  at  the  end  of  the  ninth  year,  while  the  percentages  of 
barely  passing  (3)  and  unsatisfactory  marks  (4,  5,  or  incomplete)  materially 
increase  as  the  intelligence  rating  grows  lower. 

Evidently  the  group  mental  test  possesses  distinct  value  in  analyzing  the 
mental  capacity  of  a  group  of  students,  as  well  as  in  predicting  their  probable 
success  or  failure  in  various  types  of  school  work.  Where  lack  of  time  pre- 
vents the  general  use  of  the  individual  test  as  a  means  of  analysis  and  segre- 
gation, very  satisfactory  results  can  be  obtained  on  the  whole  through  utilizing 
the  less  expensive  instrument  of  the  group  intelligence  test; — always  with 
the  real  need,  however,  of  studying  and  checking  every  doubtful  case  through 
comparison  of  the  test  result  with  all  other  factors  involved,  such  as:  quality 
of  school  work,  teacher's  estimate  of  intelligence,  industry  and  application, 
health,  interests,  and  out-of-school  requirements  and  activities. 


k  1  =  Excellent.  4  =  Condition. 

2=  Satisfactory.  5  — Faliure. 

3=:Passing.  Inc.  =  Incomplete. 


56681 


SECTION  6. 


SCHOOL  ORGANIZATION  AND   CLASSIFICATION  WITH   REFERENCE   TO 
INDIVIDUAL  DIFFERENCES 

It  is  evident  from  the  preceding  sections  of  this  study  that  the  mental 
test  is  a  valuable  tool  to  use  in  the  guidance  and  classification  of  school 
children.  It  seems  advisable  here  to  discuss  some  of  the  features  of  school 
administration  adapted  to  care  for  such  individual  differences  as  have  been 
discussed. 

No  single  rule  can  regulate  the  classification  of  a  school  according  to 
the  capacity  of  pupils  to  learn;  no  two  schools  can  be  treated  exactly  alike; 
the  machinery  must  be  subject  to  constant  adjustment.  A  general  principle 
may  be  stated  as  follows:  ''Find  the  mental  capacity  of  the  pupil  and  place 
him  where  he  belongs,  taking  careful  consideration  of  his  age,  former  accom- 
plishment in  school,  industry,  interest,  health,  and  any  other  condition  which 
is  known  to  have  a  bearing  upon  his  proper  placement."  To  attempt  to  define 
specifically  what  shall  be  done  has  a  tendency  to  make  for  mechanical  treat- 
ment of  children,  while  what  must  be  kept  uppermost  is  that  the  individual 
needs  of  each  child  should  be  met  as  nearly  as  possible.  The  school  must 
come  more  and  more  to  consider  individuals  rather  than  masses  or  groups. 
However,  for  the  sake  of  having  a  common  language  for  administrative  prac- 
tice, we  shall  define  four  general  types  of  classes  varying  from  normal: 
atypical,  limited,  opportunity,  accelerated.  These  classes,  all  called  "special 
classes,"  differ  from  the  regular  groups  in  that  they  are  permitted  to  vary 
either  the  content  of  the  course  of  study,  or  the  rate  of  progress,  or  both: 

Special  Atypical  Classes. 

The  most  apparent  need  (please  note  that  I  say  the  ''most  apparent,"  not 
the  greatest)  in  our  school  system  is  that  which  concerns  itself  with  the 
proper  treatment  of  the  very  inferior  child  who  seems  altogether  unable  to 
profit  by  the  instruction  in  the  regular  classes.  For  such  pupils  so-called 
"special  atypical  classes"  have  been  organized,  each  one  limited  to  an  enroll- 
ment of  16  pupils,  where  the  instruction  given  becomes  largely  individual. 
Any  pupil  may  be  a  candidate  for  one  of  these  classes  who  is  over-age  and 
slow,  and  who  shows,  both  by  school  record  and  mental  test,  that  he  stands 
much  below  normal  and  that  he  appears  quite  unable  to  work  successfully 
with  the  regular  class.  It  is  important  to  note  that  the  results  of  the  mental 
tests  are  not  sufficient  for  making  assignments;  there  must  be  the  corrobora- 
tion through  other  data,  such  as  the  teacher's  judgment  of  the  child's  school 
work,  as  well  as  her  estimate  of  his  intelligence;  a  most  careful  study  is 
likewise  made  of  physical  and  environmental  conditions.* 


*  Data    recently    issued    (1921)    showed    the    following    facts     for     336     pupils    working     in    atypical 
classes : 

Median  chronological   age      =13-5 
Median   mental  age  =   8-8 

Median   I.  Q.  =68 

Median  mental   retardation    =   4:_    years. 

—  38  — 


The  purpose  of  the  special  class  instruction  for  these  pupils  is: 

(1)  To  give  each  pupil  as  much  of  the  standard  curriculum  as  he  can 
take  with  regular  effort. 

(2)  To  give  more  work  of  manual  nature  than  he  can  be  given  in 
regular  classes. 

(3)  To  discover  and  to  train  any  special  ability  that  each  child  may 
show  which  will  enable  him  to  become  a  useful  member  of  society,  partially 
or  wholly  self-supporting. 

(4)  To  instill  proper  attitudes  toward  all  problems  of  citizenship  and 
life  in  general. 

It  is  not  the  purpose  of  the  special  atypical  class  to  coach  up  a  child  to 
enter  the  regular  grade  again,  though  if  a  child  shows  at  any  time  ability 
to  do  work  with  a  regular  class  in  a  manner  that  is  at  all  satisfactory,  he 
is  transferred  to  such  a  class. 

No  definite  course  of  study  is  fixed.  All  are  taught  reading,  writing, 
language,  and  number  work  in  so  far  as  their  capacities  permit  them  to  go 
without  spending  a  very  unreasonable  amount  of  time.  Approximately  one- 
half  the  time  is  spent  in  some  form  of  manual  work;  the  following  are  the 
types  of  work  commonly  found:  rug  weaving;  making  paper  candle  shades, 
electric  light  shades,  nut  cups,  reed  baskets,  raffia  work,  pine  needle  baskets 
and  trays,  hearth  brooms,  brushes,  toys  (aeroplanes,  animals,  etc.);  sewing 
for  girls  (aprons,  dresses,  etc.);  where  equipment  permits,  practical  lessons 
in  simple  cooking  and  care  of  home;  chair  caning  and  shoe  cobbling  (only 
in  a  few  schools). 

This  type  of  special  class  has  proven  decidedly  successful,  as  well  as 
absolutely  necessary  for  the  handling  of  certain  types  of  school  problems. 
The  normal  class  and  teacher  are  relieved  of  a  drag;  the  pupil,  doing  work 
adjusted  to  his  particular  needs  under  the  direction  of  a  specially  trained 
teacher,  is  made  happier  and  more  contented,  with  a  greater  opportunity  for 
developing  to  the  maximum  even  that  limited  capacity  with  which  he  has 
been  endowed. 

Special  Limited  Classes. 

When  the  extremely  inferior  child  has  been  eliminated  from  the  regular 
classroom  through  the  organization  of  such  classes  as  described  above,  there 
still  remains  a  problem  of  inferiority  to  be  considered;  i.  e.,  the  child  who 
is  so  slow  or  dull  mentally  that  he  cannot  keep  pace  with  normal  class  work, 
but  is  still  able  to  make  some  progress  with  the  essentials  of  grade  work, 
though  at  a  slower  rate  of  speed.  Such  children,  if  held  to  the  rigid  standard 
of  regular  grades,  would  move  up  so  slowly  that  they  would  reach  the  com- 
pulsory age  limit  and  would  pass  out  into  the  industrial  world  long  before 
finishing  the  elementary  grades.  Hence  there  comes  the  value  of  organizing 
for  these  pupils  so-called  "Special  Limited  Classes,"  for  which  the  course  of 
study  is  slightly  modified,  consisting  of  what  might  be  termed  a  minimum 
course.  The  pupils  enrolled  are  given  only  the  most  essential  parts  of  the 
regular  curriculum  for  the  grade.  They  are  then  promoted  from  term  to 
term  from  one  limited  class  to  the  limited  class  of  the  next  grade  higher. 

Where  it  is  impossible  to  organize  a  separate  limited  class  for  each  grade, 
two  grades  can  be  combined,  such  as,   1st  and  2nd  Limited,  3rd  and  4th 

—  39  — 


Limited,  etc.  In  any  case  the  enrollment  of  these  classes  should  be  kept 
considerably  below  the  standard  for  normal  groups.  The  segregation  of  the 
slower  pupils  makes  it  possible  to  increase  the  size  of  the  regular  class,  thus 
necessitating  no  additional  teaching  force.  Thus  segregated,  the  pupils  of 
both  divisions  have  been  found  to  work  better,  behave  better,  and  accom- 
plish more. 

Special  limited  classes  are  planned  for  pupils  from  the  first  grade  through 
their  school  course.  They  pass  from  the  limited  first  to  the  limited  second 
to  the  limited  third,  etc.,  from  year  to  year,  progressing  steadily,  but  one 
or  more  years  over  age.  They  progress,  not  because  they  have  covered 
standard  first,  second,  or  third  grade  work,  but  because  they  ought  to  pass 
up  through  the  grades  to  the  best  of  their  ability,  getting  as  much  as  they 
can  as  they  advance,  and  finally  reaching  some  of  the  features  of  upper  grade 
work  which  are  most  essential  in  preparing  this  type  of  pupil  for  an  early 
introduction  into  industrial  life  and  citizenship.  Our  problem  is  to  give 
them  the  best  education  which  the  schools  can  give  up  to  the  age  of  sixteen. 
It  is  not  the  problem  of  what  grade  they  shall  work  in  or  finish,  but  what 
education  we  can  give  which  will  best  fit  them  for  citizenship.  Special 
limited  divisions  are  organized  in  our  Junior  High  Schools  and  are  beginning 
in  the  Senior  High  School. 

Special  Opportunity  Classes. 

Special  opportunity  classes  are  designed  for  those  children  who  have  at 
least  normal  mental  capacity,  but  because  of  lack  of  progress  due  to  illness, 
moving  about,  or  other  causes,  are  working  in  grades  below  where  they  should 
be.  The  purpose  of  these  classes  is  to  give  such  help  as  is  needed  to  adjust 
the  pupil  as  quickly  as  possible  to  take  up  with  a  regular  class  the  work 
which  fits  his  capacity  and  needs.  One  such  group  for  a  large  school  is  all 
that  is  needed,  and  its  enrollment  will  be  changing  from  month  to  month, 
or  from  week  to  week,  as  pupils  are  ready  to  move  into  the  regular  grades. 

Special  Accelerated  Classes. 

With  the  elimination  from  the  regular  classes  and  provision  for  special 
instruction  of  all  problem  cases  where  the  pupil  concerned  is  below  standard 
accomplishment,  some  have  thought  that  the  responsibility  of  the  school 
is  well  met.  However,  there  remains  a  very  important  section  of  our  school 
population  still  unprovided  for,  i.  e.,  those  superior  pupils  whose  mental 
capacity  is  beyond  that  of  the  grade  in  which  they  are  placed.  These  are 
the  children  from  whom  the  greatest  accomplishment  should  be  expected, 
and  who  should  become  the  leaders  of  tomorrow.  Many  of  them  are  marking 
time  throughout  their  elementary  course  and  thus  forming  habits  of  indolence 
that  will  in  many  cases  affect  all  future  success.  By  segregation  into  special 
classes  or  through  some  individual  guidance  by  the  teacher  herself,  such 
pupils  may  accomplish  either  one  of  two  things:  (1)  save  from  one  to  two 
years  of  time  in  graduating  from  the  elementary  school;  (2)  cover  an 
enriched  curriculum  at  practically  the  normal  pace. 

The  present  standard  curriculum  is  supposedly  based  on  the  ability  of 
the  average  child.  Hence  school  classification  on  the  basis  of  individual 
needs  must  recognize  the  tremendous  need  of  the  superior  pupil  to  whom 
the  mastery  of  the  standard  curriculum  is  child's  play,  and  who  must  be 

—  40  — 


trained  to  use  his  powers  to  their  maximum  capacity.     The  problem  may 
be  met  in  one  of  two  ways: 

(1)  By  individual  attention,  where  numerous  class  divisions  do  not 
exist.  The  superior  child  may  do  enriched  work  in  the  regular  class,  or  he 
may  work  at  a  more  rapid  pace,  or  he  may  do  something  of  both. 

(2)  By  segregation  into  groups.  Here  the  curriculum  may  be  broad- 
ened for  the  whole  class,  or  the  class  may  cover  two  terms'  work  in  one 
semester,  as  circumstances  seem  to  recommend. 

Segregation  in  High  Schools. 

The  policy  of  segregation  does  not  stop  with  the  elementary  school.  The 
very  fact  that  these  limited  class  pupils  are  carried  on  up  through  the  grades 
means  that  the  Junior  High  School  and  Senior  High  School  must  receive  a 
large  number  of  pupils  who  formerly  left  school  before  completing  the 
elementary  grades.  These  pupils  are  clearly  not  capable  of  carrying  the 
standard  course  as  prescribed  in  our  regular  high  schools.  The  high  school, 
therefore,  must  make  decision;  it  must  either  furnish  courses  of  study  adapted 
to  the  needs  of  these  children,  making  proper  classification  for  them,  or  it 
must  give  them  a  trial  at  work  which  they  cannot  do,  fail  them,  and  then 
pass  them  out.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  our  high  schools  are  rapidly  adjusting 
themselves  to  this  new  problem  and  are  making  classification  according  to 
capacity  and  variations  in  courses  of  study,  at  the  same  time  offering  a  large 
number  of  electives  and  permitting  superior  pupils  to  carry  additional 
subjects. 

It  should  be  kept  clearly  in  mind,  however,  that  neither  the  elective  system 
nor  the  additional  subject  plan  furnishes  an  adequate  solution  to  the  problem 
of  meeting  the  varying  capacities  of  high  school  students.  The  fact  that 
pupils  of  both  high  and  low  mentality  may  elect  to  take  algebra  does  not 
mean  that  they  can  be  taught  satisfactorily  in  the  same  class,  nor  does  it 
solve  the  teaching  problem  to  permit  a  superior  student  to  take  Spanish 
as  a  fifth  subject,  only  to  find  himself  in  a  class  with  markedly  inferior  minds. 
The  fact  remains  that  dull  pupils  and  bright  pupils  do  not  work  well  together 
in  the  same  class.  The  only  solution  to  this  problem  is  either  segregation 
into  different  groups,  or  variation  of  treatment  and  standards  of  accomplish- 
ment within  the  same  group. 

Furthermore,  there  is  evident  need  of  variation  in  the  content  of  the 
course  of  study  to  meet  individual  differences.  Pupils  of  limited  capacity 
do  not  need  merely  a  diluted  form  of  algebra  or  Spanish.  If  they  cannot 
comprehend  this  work,  they  should  be  given  something  entirely  different; 
just  what  this  is  can  be  determined  only  by  the  most  careful  and  scientific 
study  of  each  individual  with  reference  to  his  capacities  and  needs. 


—  41  — 


CHAPTER   III. 


SUMMARY   AND    CONXLUSIOItS 

1.  The  need  for  a  better  classification  of  school  children  is  shown  by 
all  recent  surveys  of  city  systems  in  America.  This  need  is  revealed  by  the 
fact  that  pupils  in  the  same  grade  show  such  a  wide  variation  in  age,  capacity, 
accomplishment,  and  rate  of  progress. 

2.  A  group  of  186  kindergarten  children  show  an  age  range  from  4  years 
and  4  months  to  7  years  and  10  months,  the  mediam  age  being  5  years  and 
8  months.  Eight  and  six-tenths  per  cent  were  below  5  years;  58.1%  between 
5  and  6  years,  while  33.3%  were  above  6  years  of  age.  The  mental  ages  of 
these  same  kindergarten  children  range  from  3  years  6  months  to  8  years 
and  4  months,  the  median  being  5  years  and  10  months.  Fifteen  and  six- 
tenths  per  cent  were  below  5  years;  39.2 %  between  5  and  6  years;  45.2% 
were  above  6  years  mentally. 

3.  The  median  mental  capacity  in  the  L-l  grade  varies  widely  in  dif- 
ferent schools.  In  seven  different  schools  in  the  same  city,  the  median 
mental  age  of  L-l  grade  pupils,  as  shown  by  the  individual  test,  was  as 
follows:  (A)  5  years  and  8  months;  (B)  6  years  and  2  months;  (C)  6 
years  and  4  months;  (D)  6  years  and  4  months;  (E)  6  years  and  6  months; 
(F)  6  years  and  6  months;  (G)  7  years  and  0  months.  Three  hundred  and 
twenty-five  children  are  represented  in  this  distribution;  the  median  mental 
age  for  the  entire  group  is  6  years  and  4  months.  It  should  be  noted  that 
the  median  mental  age  in  School  A  is  1  year  and  4  months  below  the  median 
mental  age  in  School  G.  This  represents  a  difference  of  more  than  one  full 
year-grade  in  capacity,  yet  the  L-l  grade  course  of  study  in  these  schools 
was  the  same.  Of  these  325  L-l  grade  children.  27. 4%  were  below  6  years 
mentally;  50.1  ^7  between  6  and  7  years  mentally;  and  22.5','  above  7  years 
mentally.  Another  group  of  235  L-l  grade  children,  tested  in  another  year, 
reveals  35.7%  below  6  years  mentally;  42.2%  between  6  and  7  years,  and 
22.1%  above  7  years  mentally.  These  two  rather  large  groups  of  L-l  grade 
children  (representing  all  of  the  children  attending  in  this  grade  in  the  schools 
where  the  tests  were  made,  therefore  not  a  selected  group)  both  point  to  the 
same  conclusion;  i.  e.,  that  approximately  50%  of  L-l  grade  children  test 
between  6  and  7  years  mentally  and  that  more  than  one-fourth  of  the  children 
have  mental  ages  below  6  years  and  that  almost  one-fourth  have  mental  ages 
above  7  years. 

4.  One  hundred  and  seventy-one  H-l  grade  children  show  an  age  range 
from  5  years  and  10  months  to  12  years  and  2  months;  a  mental  age  range 
from  4  years  8  months  to  9  years  and  0  months.  ( The  median  chronological 
age  was  7  years  and  6  months;  the  median  mental  age  was  6  years  and  6 
months.  Therefore,  this  group  is  distinctly  inferior.)  Chronological  over- 
ageness  begins  to  show  prominently  in  the  H-l  grade.  Sixty-seven  and  eight- 
tenths  per  cent  of  these  children  were  over  7  years  of  age,  while  only  29.8'; 
were  above  7  years  mentally.  This  means  that  38%  of  this  group  of' children 
were  over-age  and  dull.    They  were  discovered  before  finishing  the  first  grade 

—  42  — 


and  were  held  back.  On  the  other  hand.  30'  '<  test  above  7  years  mentally — 
a  capacity  equal  to  the  next  grade  higher.  They  had  not  been  discovered 
and  moved  ahead.    Should  not  the  rule  be  made  to  work  both  ways? 

5.  About  90'  V  of  the  children  in  the  first  grade  who  test  below  6  years 
mentally  either  fail  of  promotion  or  are  passed  on  because  of  over-ageness 
although  the  work  is  unsatisfactory.  In  some  schools  where  the  general 
average  of  mentality  is  very  low  the  standard  for  passing  work  is  corre- 
spondingly low,  thus  making  the  percentage  of  pupils  passing  or  failing  much 
the  same  as  in  another  school  where  conditions  are  more  nearly  normal. 
Likewise  in  schools  where  the  general  average  of  mentality  is  very  high,  the 
standards  are  raised  again,  making  percentages  of  success  or  failure  similar 
to  normal.  The  universal  tendency  is  to  bring  the  extremes  of  a  distribution 
toward  the  mode  or  median  and  also  to  base  promotion  or  failure  upon  the 
time  of  service  in  a  given  grade. 

6.  A  follow-up  for  a  period  of  2  years  revealed  the  fact  that  children 
in  the  kindergarten,  testing  with  an  I.  Q.  below  90,  failed  to  make  normal 
progress  in  76  cases  out  of  100.  They  made  normal  progress  in  23  cases  out 
of  100;  and  no  one  made  rapid  progress.  On  the  other  hand,  those  testing 
with  an  I.  Q.  of  110  or  above  showed  rapid  progress  in  32  cases  out  of  100; 
and  slow  progress  in  less  than  9  cases  out  of  100.  Likewise  children  in  the 
L-l  grade  testing  with  an  I.  Q.  below  90,  showed  slow  progress  in  87  cases 
out  of  100;  while  those  above  110  I.  Q.  showed  rapid  progress  in  53  cases 
out  of  100.  In  the  H-l  grade  those  testing  below  90  I.  Q.  showed  slow 
progress  in  86  cases  out  of  100;  while  those  testing  above  110  I.  Q.  showed 
rapid  progress  in  83  cases  out  of  100.  Thirty- five  first  grade  children  testing 
below  90  I.  Q.  were  followed  for  a  period  of  41/2  years;  94.6%  failed  to  make 
normal  progress  in  school.  Clearly  a  low  I.  Q.  and  a  high  I.  Q.  have  definite 
prognostic  value  with  reference  to  the  progress  of  a  child  for  the  two  years 
following  his  test  in  kindergarten  or  first  grade.  The  tests  in  the  kindergarten 
did  not  have  as  high  prognostic  value  as  those  in  L-l  or  H-l. 

7.  A  comparison  of  the  child's  mental  age  at  the  close  of  the  2  years' 
follow-up  period  with  his  grade  location  at  that  time  showed  that,  of  the 
kindergarten  group,  only  46.0%  were  mentally  at-age  for  the  grade  2  years 
after  the  test  was  given;  of  the  L-l  children,  48.5%  were  mentally  at-age, 
and  of  the  H-l  group,  44.4%.  The  rest  of  the  children  (between  50.0% 
and  60.0%  of  each  group)  were  either  mentally  under-age,  with  most  of 
them  doing  inferior  work  in  the  grade  in  which  they  were  placed,  or  else 
they  were  mentally  over-age  for  the  grade,  with  the  majority  of  them  through 
superior  school  work  giving  evidence  of  mental  capacity  beyond  the  average. 

8.  Predictions  as  to  school  progress — rapid,  normal,  or  slow — were  made 
for  52  first  grade  children  at  the  time  of  test.  A  follow-up  4l/*>  years  later 
proved  predictions  true  in  77.8%  of  the  cases.  In  18%  of  the  cases  the 
failure  of  the  prediction  to  hold  true  was  explained  on  the  basis  of  absence, 
or  illness,  or  environmental  hindrance.  Therefore,  the  prediction  made  in 
the  first  grade  was  valid  for  96%  of  the  cases  at  the  end  of  a  period  of  4V& 
years. 

—  43  — 


9  .  Mental  age  is  a  fair  index  of  a  child's  ability  to  do  first  grade  work! 
Correlation  between  M.  A.  and  teachers'  ratings  in  school  work  for  149  firs] 
grade  children  was  .725   (Pearson). 

10.  Of  the  261  kindergarten  and  first  grade  children  who  were  locate^ 
in  the  schools  two  years  after  the  test,  50.5%  were  already  chronologically 
over-age  for  the  grade,  even  though  they  had  not  yet  finished  third  gradj 
work;  37.9%  were  both  over-age  and  low  in  mentality.  Low  mentality  ij 
undoubtedly  the  predominating  factor  in  producing  failure  in  these  grade 
of  school. 

11.  Reliability  of  the  individual  test  (Stanford  Revision)  is  shown  bj 
288  retests.  The  range  of  time  between  first  and  second  tests  varied  fror 
1  month  to  3  years.  The  coefficient  of  correlation  between  first  and  secon^ 
tests  was  .90  (Pearson).  The  median  difference  in  I.  Q.  was  5.1  points.  Tl 
second  test  averaged  only  0.5  of  a  point  in  I.  Q.  above  the  first.  In  oth« 
words,  the  second  test  is  below  the  first  about  as  often  as  it  is  above  it. 

12.  Group  mental  tests  in  the  upper  elementary  grades  and  in  the  higj 
school  have  a  distinct  value  in  analyzing  the  capacity  of  students  to  do  schoc 
work.     They  should  be  used  to  assist  in  segregating  pupils  into  capacitj 
groups  for  class  instruction.    Five  general  types  of  classes  possible  in  a  lar<; 
school  organization  are  as  follows:      (1)  atypical,  for  the  lowest  mentalit) 
(2)  limited,  for  the  dull  mentally;    (3)  opportunity,  for  those  who  shoul] 
make  up  work  lost  by  illness  or  absence;    (4)  normal;    (5)   accelerated,  fc 
those  who  should  move  faster  or  cover  an  enriched  curriculum. 

13.  The  junior  high  and  senior  high  school  curricula  should  be  change! 
to  fit  the  needs  of  pupils  of  limited  mental  capacity.  Elective  subjects  anj 
slow  or  rapid  classes  in  the  same  subject  will  not  meet  the  need.  The  limitel 
pupil  demands  a  different  course  of  study.  In  the  elementary  grades  tl 
curriculum  for  limited  pupils  should  be  made  simpler,  but  similar  to  tfc 
of  the  regular  grades. 

14.  A  well  organized  program  for  mental  testing  should  be  an  integd 
part  of  every  school  system.  Every  child  should  be  given  an  individual  te^ 
as  soon  after  entering  school  as  possible  (not  later  than  the  middle  of  tl 
first  term  if  he  speaks  English).  Group  mental  tests  should  be  given  to  al 
children  at  intervals  not  greater  than  two  years,  followed  by  individual  tes( 
of  all  problem  or  disagreement  cases.  These  test  results  should  be  used  wit 
all  other  available  data  in  the  classification  and  guidance  of  pupils  in  schocj 
work. 


RY, 
■OS  ANGELES,  GALIJJ. 


—  44  — 


UC  SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 


